Microplastics from miscellaneous plastic wastes: Physico-chemical characterization and impact on fish and amphibian development.

Microplastic pollution represents a global problem with negative impacts on aquatic environment and organisms' health. To date, most of the laboratory toxicological studies on microplastics (MPs) have made use of single commercial micro and nano-polymers, which do not reflect the heterogeneity of environmental MPs. To improve the relevance of the hazard assessment, micrometer-sized plastic particles of miscellaneous non-reusable waste plastics, with size <100 µm and <50 µm (waste microplastics, wMPs), were characterized by microscopic and spectroscopic techniques and tested on developing zebrafish and Xenopus laevis by FET and FETAX assays respectively. Moreover, the modalities of wMP interaction with the embryonic structures, as well as the histological lesions, were explored by light and electron microscopy. We have shown that wMPs had very heterogeneous shapes and sizes, were mainly composed of polyethylene and polypropylene and contained metal and organic impurities, as well as submicrometric particle fractions, features that resemble those of environmental occurring MPs. wMPs (0.1-100 mg/L) caused low rate of mortality and altered phenotypes in embryos, but established species-specific biointeractions. In zebrafish, wMPs by adhering to chorion were able to delay hatching in a size and concentration dependent manner. In Xenopus embryos, which open stomodeum earlier than zebrafish, wMPs were accumulated in intestinal tract, where produced mechanical stress and stimulated mucus overproduction, attesting an irritation response. Although wMP biointeractions did not interfere with morphogenesis processes, further studies are needed to understand the underlying mechanisms and long-term impact of these, or even smaller, wMPs.