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1.
J Med Philos ; 49(2): 128-146, 2024 Mar 14.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-38418083

RESUMO

Elselijn Kingma argues that Christopher Boorse's biostatistical theory (the BST) does not show how the reference classes it uses are objective and naturalistic. Recently, philosophers of medicine have attempted to rebut Kingma's concerns. I argue that these rebuttals are theoretically unconvincing, and that there are clear examples of physicians adjusting their reference classes according to their prior knowledge of health and disease. I focus on the use of age-adjusted reference classes to diagnose low bone mineral density in children. In addition to using the BST's age, sex, and species, physicians also choose to use other factors to define reference classes, such as pubertal status, bone age, body size, and muscle mass. I show that physicians calibrate the reference classes they use according to their prior knowledge of health and disease. Reference classes are also chosen for pragmatic reasons, such as to predict fragility fractures.


Assuntos
Doenças Ósseas Metabólicas , Doença , Medicina , Criança , Humanos , Saúde , Filosofia Médica
2.
J Med Philos ; 49(2): 147-159, 2024 Mar 14.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-38422236

RESUMO

In this article, I side with those who argue that the debate about the definition of "disease" should be reoriented from the question "what is disease" to the question of what it should be. However, I ground my argument on the rejection of the naturalist approach to define disease and the adoption of a normativist approach, according to which the concept of disease is normative and value-laden. Based on this normativist approach, I defend two main theses: (1) that conceptual analysis is not the right method to define disease and that conceptual engineering should be the preferred method and (2) that the method of conceptual engineering should be implemented following the principles of Alexandrova's account of social objectivity in the context of the definition of disease.


Assuntos
Filosofia Médica , Humanos
3.
Salud Colect ; 19: e4464, 2023 10 03.
Artigo em Espanhol | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-38000003

RESUMO

This article theoretically frames the issue of obstetric violence as epistemic injustice, drawing heavily from feminist phenomenological philosophy, within the general framework of narrative bioethics and the fight for sexual-reproductive rights. The first section deals with the concept of obstetric violence, emphasizing Latin America's pioneering role in its coinage and recognition, as well as its empirical-hermeneutical applications. In the second section, consideration is given to how the concept of obstetric violence has been analyzed through the lens of epistemic injustice (in its two versions: testimonial and hermeneutic), which has signified major progress in its systemic understanding and its biopolitical nature. The article's conclusions highlight the full empirical-theoretical relevance of the term, as a thick philosophical concept, despite existing tensions between the biosanitary (especially medical) sector and citizen demands.


Este artículo aborda en términos teóricos la cuestión de la violencia obstétrica como injusticia epistémica, con especial énfasis en las perspectivas que propone la filosofía fenomenológica feminista, desde el encuadre general de la bioética narrativa y la lucha por los derechos sexo-reproductivos. En la primera parte, se aborda el concepto de violencia obstétrica, enfatizando el carácter pionero de América Latina en su acuñe y reconocimiento, así como en su aplicación empírico-hermenéutica. En la segunda parte, se examina cómo el concepto de violencia obstétrica ha sido analizado a través del prisma de la injusticia epistémica (en sus dos versiones: testimonial y hermenéutica), lo que ha supuesto un avance significativo en su comprensión sistémica y en su carácter biopolítico. El artículo concluye sobre la plena pertinencia empírico-teórica del término, en tanto concepto filosófico denso, pese a la controversia existente entre la clase biosanitaria (especialmente médica) y la reclamación ciudadana.


Assuntos
Feminismo , Violência , Gravidez , Feminino , Humanos , Hermenêutica , Filosofia Médica , Filosofia
4.
Med Health Care Philos ; 26(4): 605-614, 2023 Dec.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-37725254

RESUMO

Digital phenotyping will potentially enable earlier detection and prediction of mental illness by monitoring human interaction with and through digital devices. Notwithstanding its promises, it is certain that a person's digital phenotype will at times be at odds with their first-person testimony of their psychological states. In this paper, we argue that there are features of digital phenotyping in the context of psychiatry which have the potential to exacerbate the tendency to dismiss patients' testimony and treatment preferences, which can be instances of epistemic injustice. We first explain what epistemic injustice is, and why it is argued to be an extensive problem in health and disability settings. We then explain why epistemic injustice is more likely to apply with even greater force in psychiatric contexts, and especially where digital phenotyping may be involved. Finally, we offer some tentative suggestions of how epistemic injustice can be minimised in digital psychiatry.


Assuntos
Transtornos Mentais , Psiquiatria , Humanos , Transtornos Mentais/diagnóstico , Cuidados Paliativos , Conhecimento , Filosofia Médica
5.
Cambios rev. méd ; 22(1): e883, 30 Junio 2023. ilus
Artigo em Espanhol | LILACS | ID: biblio-1451949

RESUMO

INTRODUCCIÓN. La epistemología, rama de la filosofía que estudia el proceso de investigación y su producto el conocimiento científico, implica ámbitos de la ciencia con enfoque positivismo y postpositivismo, interpretativismo, teoría crítica; y, transcomplejo, cada uno de ellos con los elementos paradigmáticos de: ontología, epistemología y metodología, su conocimiento y aplicabilidad en los diferentes ámbitos es fundamental porque sus enfoques generan ciencia. OBJETIVO. Desarrollar capacidades intelectuales en bases contextuales y teóricas en epistemología de la investigación social, indispensables para el ejercicio profesional en el ámbito de la investigación científica y del conocimiento científico. MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS. Estudio observacional, descriptivo, con población y muestra conocida de 30 modalidades de publicación, periodo junio a julio 2020. Los criterios de inclusión fueron: fuentes secundarias de información bibliográfica validadas en el ámbito de las ciencias sociales. La técnica de observación fue en buscadores bibliográficos PUBMED, Scielo, Scopus, Diccionario de Descriptores en Ciencias de la Salud y la Real Academia Española. La tarea de revisar la literatura de investigación comprendió la identificación, selección, análisis crítico, descripción escrita, interpretación, discusión y conclusión de la información que existe sobre la epistemología de la investigación social, tema, que se registró con aplicación de un gestor de referencias bibliográficas, tipo Microsoft Word. RESULTADOS. Se logró obtener capacidades intelectuales al estructurar la cronológica de la epistemología de la investigación social, del conocimiento científico y nuevas perspectivas para el ejercicio profesional en el ámbito de la investigación científica. CONCLUSIÓN. Las perspectivas se orientan a integrar paradigmas pasados y futuros con visión de transcomplejidad, espacios organológicos de una gran red, conformación de cibercomunidades de investigación, uso de método integrador, nuevo lenguaje en equipos multidisciplinarios, agentes como el foco principal de la teoridad epistémica en espacio, tiempo y la relación entre las cosas.


INTRODUCTION. Epistemology, a branch of philosophy that studies the research process and its product, scientific knowledge, involves areas of science focussed in with positivism and postpositivism, interpretivism, critical theory; and, transcomplex, each one of them with the paradigmatic elements of: ontology, epistemology and methodology, their knowledge and applicability in the different fields is fundamental because their approaches generate science. OBJECTIVE. Develop intellectual capacities on contextual and theoretical bases in the epistemology of social research, essential for professional practice in the field of scientific research and scientific knowledge. MATERIALS AND METHODS. Observational, descriptive study, with population and a known sample of 30 publication modalities, period June to July 2020. The inclusion criteria were: secondary sources of bibliographic information validated in the field of social sciences. The observation technique was in bibliographic search engines PUBMED, Scielo, Scopus, Dictionary of Descriptors in Health Sciences and the Royal Spanish Academy. The task of reviewing the research literature included the identification, selection, critical analysis, written description, interpretation, discussion and conclusion of the information that exists on the epistemology of social research, subject, which was registered with the application of a reference manager bibliographic, Microsoft Word type. RESULTS. Intellectual capacities were obtained by structuring the chronology of the epistemology of social research, scientific knowledge and new perspectives for professional practice in the field of scientific research. CONCLUSION. The perspectives are aimed at integrating past and future paradigms with a vision of transcomplexity, organological spaces of a large network, formation of research cyber communities, use of integrative method, new language in multidisciplinary teams, agents as the main focus of epistemic theory in space, time and the relationship between things.


Assuntos
Pensamento/classificação , Ciência Cognitiva , Pesquisa Interdisciplinar , Descoberta do Conhecimento , Validade Social em Pesquisa , Aprendizado Social , Filosofia Médica , Formação de Conceito/classificação , Conhecimento , Equador , Gestão do Conhecimento
7.
Cuad Bioet ; 34(110): 25-35, 2023.
Artigo em Espanhol | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-37211543

RESUMO

The current scenario of health sciences, and of Medicine in particular, is characterized by the growing role of Artificial Intelligence (AI), thus projecting towards the consolidation of a new model of Medicine. Along with the undeniable advantages offered by the application of AI for the diagnosis and treatment of complex clinical problems, some ethical questions arise, which demand careful reflection. However, most of the literature that addresses the ethical issues associated with the use of AI in medicine does so from the poiesis' perspective. Indeed, a large part of that evidence is related to the design, programming, training and operation of algorithms, problems that exceed the competences of the health professionals that use them. Our proposal is framed in the ethics of virtue outlined by Edmund Pellegrino, which is a valuable epistemological perspective to trace a path of reflection on the ethical problems arising from the use of AI in Medicine. This perspective -based on a sound philosophy of Medicine- adopts the praxis' point of view, that is, of the acting subject. Since the health professional is a moral agent who uses AI as a tool to achieve an end -the good of the patient-,from Pellegrino's perspective it is possible to ask how the use of AI might influence the achievement of the goal of medical work and thus, be considered a criterion of ethical orientation.


Assuntos
Inteligência Artificial , Ética Médica , Humanos , Filosofia Médica , Virtudes , Princípios Morais
8.
Int J Biostat ; 19(2): 283-293, 2023 11 01.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-36800549

RESUMO

In this paper, I provide an introduction for biostatisticians and others to some recent work in the philosophy of medicine. Firstly, I give an overview of some philosophical arguments that are thought to create problems for a prominent approach towards establishing causal claims in medicine, namely, the Evidence-Based Medicine (EBM) approach. Secondly, I provide an overview of further recent work in the philosophy of medicine, which argues that mechanistic studies can help to address these problems. Lastly, I describe a novel approach for establishing causal claims in medicine that has been informed by this recent work in the philosophy of medicine, namely, the EBM+ approach.


Assuntos
Medicina Baseada em Evidências , Filosofia Médica , Humanos , Filosofia , Movimento , Pesquisadores
9.
Psychol Med ; 53(1): 1-5, 2023 01.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-36601817

RESUMO

BACKGROUND: Psychiatrists depend on their patients for clinical information and are obligated to regard them as trustworthy, except in special circumstances. Nevertheless, some critics of psychiatry have argued that psychiatrists frequently perpetrate epistemic injustice against patients. Epistemic injustice is a moral wrong that involves unfairly discriminating against a person with respect to their ability to know things because of personal characteristics like gender or psychiatric diagnosis. METHODS: We review the concept of epistemic injustice and several claims that psychiatric practice is epistemically unjust. RESULTS: While acknowledging the risk of epistemic injustice in psychiatry and other medical fields, we argue that most concerns that psychiatric practice is epistemically unjust are unfounded. CONCLUSIONS: The concept of epistemic injustice does not add significantly to existing standards of good clinical practice, and that it could produce changes in practice that would be deleterious. Psychiatrists should resist calls for changes to clinical practice based on this type of criticism.


Assuntos
Transtornos Mentais , Psiquiatria , Humanos , Transtornos Mentais/terapia , Filosofia Médica , Princípios Morais
10.
Rev. med. cine ; 18(4): 377-390, dic. 2022. ilus, tab
Artigo em Espanhol | IBECS | ID: ibc-213920

RESUMO

Un problema de la medicina son las incertidumbres epistémicas que le son propias, tanto por sus métodos de elaboración conceptual como por las que toma de las ciencias naturales y sociales en las que se apoya. En consecuencia, la medicina no es una ciencia, aunque sus bases son cada vez más científicas. Dado que en la medicina en general, y en los conceptos de salud y enfermedad, y en la realidad de los enfermos hay componentes biológicos, psicológicos y sociológicos, no tiene nada de particular invocar a la filosofía y a la literatura para la elaboración de las teorías de la medicina. En este artículo planteamos algunos de estos enfoques, se resaltan las limitaciones de la concepción biologicista y reduccionista de la medicina y se estima que adquiere mayor potencia explicativa de los conceptos de salud y enfermedad cuando se consideran los aspectos humanos y sociales de la teoría y la práctica de la medicina. Además, la literatura aporta una imagen social de la medicina y de los enfermos que deberíamos integrar en los conceptos de salud, enfermedad y enfermo. Llamamos, por último, la atención sobre un proceso que parece haber desaparecido de la práctica médica como es la convalecencia y la necesidad de una completa restauración de la salud por el riesgo, como advierte el aforismo hipocrático, de que de los residuos que quedan de las enfermedades, suelen surgir las recidivas. (AU)


A problem of medicine is the epistemic uncertainties that are inherent to it, due to its both conceptual elaboration methods and those it takes from the natural and social sciences on which they are based on. Consequently, medicine is not a science, although its basis are scientifically increasing. Given that there are biological, psychological and sociological aspects in medicine in general, and in the concepts of health and disease, and in the reality of patients, there is nothing special about invoking philosophy and literature for the elaboration of theories of medicine. In the present article we consider some of these approaches, the limitations of the biological and reductionist conception of medicine are highlighted and it is estimated that it acquires greater explanatory power of the concepts of health and disease when the human and social aspects of theory and medicine are considered. In addition, literature provides a social image of medicine and of patients that we should integrate into the concepts of health, disease and patient. Finally, we draw attention to a process that seems to have disappeared from medical practice, such as convalescence and the need for a total restoration of health due to the risk, as the Hippocratic aphorism warns, that the residues that remain from disease, relapse often occurs. (AU)


Assuntos
Humanos , Saúde , Educação Médica , Doença , Sistemas de Saúde , Filosofia Médica , Literatura
11.
Theor Med Bioeth ; 43(5-6): 401-419, 2022 12.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-36376739

RESUMO

Medicine is increasingly subject to various forms of criticism. This paper focuses on dominant forms of criticism and offers a better account of their normative character. It is argued that together, these forms of criticism are comprehensive, raising questions about both medical science and medical practice. Furthermore, it is shown that these forms of criticism mainly rely on standards of evaluation that are assumed to be internal to medicine and converge on a broader question about the aim of medicine. Further work making medicine's internal norms explicit and determining the aim of medicine would not only help to clarify to what extent the criticism is justified, but also assist an informed deliberation about the future of medicine. To illustrate some of the general difficulties associated with such a task, the paper concludes by critically engaging Edmund Pellegrino's account of the aim of medicine as well as the Hastings Center's consensus report.


Assuntos
Medicina , Filosofia Médica , Humanos
12.
Hist Philos Life Sci ; 44(4): 51, 2022 Oct 25.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-36282398

RESUMO

Nineteenth century hygiene might be a confusing concept. On the one hand, the concept of hygiene was gradually becoming an important concept that was focused on cleanliness and used interchangeably with sanitation. On the other hand, the classical notions of hygiene rooted in the Hippocratic teachings remained influential. This study is about two attempts to newly theorise such a confusing concept of hygiene in the second half of the century by Edward. W. Lane and Thomas R. Allinson. Their works, standing on the borders of self-help medical advice and theoretical treatises on medical philosophies, were not exactly scholarly ones, but their medical thoughts - conceptualised as hygienic medicine - show a characteristically holistic medical view of hygiene, a nineteenth-century version of the reinterpretation of the nature cure philosophy and vitalism. However, the aim of this study is to properly locate their conceptualisations of hygienic medicine within the historical context of the second half of the nineteenth century rather than to simply introduce the medical ideas in their books. Their views of hygiene were distinguished not only from the contemporary sanitary approach but also from similar attempts by contemporary orthodox and unorthodox medical doctors. Through a chronological analysis of changes in the concept of hygiene and a comparative analysis of these two authors' and other medical professionals' views of hygiene, this paper aims to help understand the complicated picture of nineteenth-century hygiene, particularly during the second half of the century, from the perspective of medical holism and reductionism.


Assuntos
Higiene , Medicina , História do Século XIX , História do Século XX , Higiene/história , Vitalismo/história , Filosofia/história , Filosofia Médica
13.
Theor Med Bioeth ; 43(5-6): 375-400, 2022 12.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-36114828

RESUMO

Elselijn Kingma argues that Christopher Boorse's biostatistical theory does not show how the reference classes it uses-namely, age groups of a sex of a species-are objective and naturalistic. Boorse has replied that this objection is of no concern, because there are no examples of clinicians' choosing to use reference classes other than the ones he suggests. Boorse argues that clinicians use the reference classes they do because these reflect the natural classes of organisms to which their patients belong. Drawing on a thorough exploration of how the disease osteoporosis is defined in adults, I argue that clinicians do indeed make choices about which reference classes to use in diagnosis. Clinicians use young adult reference classes to diagnose osteoporosis in elderly patients. They also use young female reference classes to diagnose osteoporosis in elderly males. Clinicians adjust their reference classes so that the diagnosis of osteoporosis reflects a person's risk of sustaining a fragility fracture. The ethical intuition that people with the same risk of fracture should receive the same diagnosis overwhelms the naturalistic intuition that reference classes should reflect natural classes of organisms of uniform functional design. Clinicians construct a variety of reference class types, including pathological reference classes and epidemiological population-specific reference classes, to serve this ethical intuition. I show how clinicians use several reference classes at once so that they can more accurately predict risk of fracture. Ultimately, the reference classes chosen and used in medical practice are quite different from those proposed in naturalistic philosophy of medicine.


Assuntos
Doença , Osteoporose , Humanos , Feminino , Idoso , Filosofia Médica , Saúde , Princípios Morais , Osteoporose/diagnóstico
14.
Chin Med Sci J ; 37(2): 91-94, 2022 Jun 30.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-35796333

RESUMO

Considering the limitations of medical science and the risks associated with medical treatments, we need to re-examine the connotation of medical science from the perspective of philosophy. Medical science is the natural expression of human kindness and human nature of rescuing the dying and healing the wounded. It is a combination of the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities. From the perspectives of medical philosophy and humanistic care, this article expounds the concepts and ideas of evidence-based, translational, and precision medicine in modern medicine and emphasizes the importance of avoiding new technical bureaucracy, paying attention to achieving a holistic view and systematic understanding, and avoiding biases in development because of the loss of the humanistic spirit in modern medical practice.


Assuntos
Medicina , Ciências Humanas , Humanos , Medicina/tendências , Filosofia Médica
15.
Med Health Care Philos ; 25(4): 579-586, 2022 Dec.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-35849217

RESUMO

This paper critically examines the metaphorical use of medical terms in philosophy. Three examples selected from distinct philosophical contexts demonstrate that such terms have been employed as metaphors both to describe the practice of philosophising and historically to diagnose philosophical positions. The selected examples are (i) the title of Avicenna's main philosophical work, The Book of Healing, (ii) the criticism of medical metaphors in Enlightenment philosophy, and (iii) recent historical diagnoses in philosophy. The underlying epistemological assumptions of all three contexts are reconstructed to critically analyse the medical metaphors. Through this tripartite synopsis, I arrive at a normative conclusions medical metaphors, such as the "healing of the soul" or "pathology of reason", do not stand up to the critique of Enlightenment and are obsolete against the theoretical background of my reference texts.


Assuntos
Metáfora , Filosofia , Humanos , Conhecimento , Filosofia Médica
16.
J Relig Health ; 61(4): 2637-2642, 2022 Aug.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-35829813

RESUMO

In this fourth issue of the Journal of Religion and Health for 2022, four key themes are explored: (1) religious and spiritual issues in China, (2) gender-related issues affecting communities, couples, women and men, (3) a multitude of philosophical perspectives regarding medicine, science, health and religion, (4) and an array of new or adapted religion/spirituality measurements and scales. Finally, we also recall and celebrate the life of former JORH Editorial Board member, Professor John S. Peale.


Assuntos
Religião , Espiritualidade , China , Feminino , Humanos , Relações Interpessoais , Masculino , Filosofia Médica
17.
J Med Philos ; 47(3): 482-493, 2022 08 04.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-35532319

RESUMO

The paper engages Christopher Boorse's Bio-Statistical Theory (BST). In its current form, BST runs into a significant challenge. For BST to account for its central tenet-that lower-level part-dysfunction is sufficient for higher-level pathology-it must provide criteria for how to decide which lower-level parts are the ones to be analyzed for health or pathology. As BST is a naturalistic theory, such choices must be based solely on naturalistic considerations. An argument is provided to show that, if BST is to be preserved, such parthood choices are based on non-naturalistic considerations. We demonstrate that even when parthood choices are based on the best way to preserve BST, there are counterintuitive results which bring the central tenet of BST into question.


Assuntos
Doença , Filosofia Médica , Dissidências e Disputas , Saúde , Humanos
18.
Camb Q Healthc Ethics ; 31(2): 192-198, 2022 04.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-35243975

RESUMO

This paper considers the relation between medical ethics (ME) and common morality (CM), professional norms, and moral philosophy. It proceeds by analyzing two recent book-length critical analyses of this relationship by Bob Baker in "The Structure of Moral Revolutions-Studies of Changes in the Morality of Abortion, Death, and the Bioethics Revolution" and Rosamond Rhodes in "The Trusted Doctor-Medical Ethics and Professionalism." It argues that despite the strengths of these critical arguments, there is nevertheless a relationship between ME, understood as the professional ethics of the healthcare professions, and both CM and moral philosophy. It also argues that ME cannot and should not be understood purely as the internally developed professional norms of the medical or healthcare professions.


Assuntos
Bioética , Ética Médica , Feminino , Humanos , Princípios Morais , Filosofia , Filosofia Médica , Gravidez
19.
Med Oncol ; 39(5): 75, 2022 Feb 23.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-35195776

RESUMO

In scientific context, the first step for scientific theoretical and methodological production is the epistemological analysis. What are assumptions for interaction between oncology and psychology? What are the conditions for psycho-oncological contribution in treating cancer? Furthermore, what are epistemological observations about the current developments in cancer field? And what are implications for sciences treating patients with neoplasms? Due to advances in oncology and in sciences supporting oncology, epistemological questions focus on the object of study of the integration between oncology and psychology. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to describe a proposal of theoretical and methodological frame suitable for current clinical and research needs in cancer patients asking for psychological support. Epistemological analysis lets the health professionals and researchers observe there are sciences using formal languages and sciences using ordinary language. Currently, personalized approach is pursued by oncology, identifying specific patients' characteristics to define the proper treatment process: not only tumor characteristics but also behavioral and psychological features. Cancer patients features can be found in patients' narrations about neoplasms: narration represents the core of clinical and research in psychoncology. Therefore when formalized, language provides the connection between oncology and psychology. Language used by patients and all the roles involved in the care of cancer patients can become a measure of these patients' features. Dialogics science measuring the ordinary language allows the ordinary language formalization, pursuing a personalized medicine.


Assuntos
Neoplasias/psicologia , Neoplasias/terapia , Medicina de Precisão/métodos , Humanos , Conhecimento , Idioma , Filosofia Médica , Qualidade de Vida , Apoio Social
20.
Med Health Care Philos ; 25(1): 47-60, 2022 Mar.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-34460042

RESUMO

In this paper we focus on some new normativist positions and compare them with traditional ones. In so doing, we claim that if normative judgments are involved in determining whether a condition is a disease only in the sense identified by new normativisms, then disease is normative only in a weak sense, which must be distinguished from the strong sense advocated by traditional normativisms. Specifically, we argue that weak and strong normativity are different to the point that one 'normativist' label ceases to be appropriate for the whole range of positions. If values and norms are not explicit components of the concept of disease, but only intervene in other explanatory roles, then the concept of disease is no more value-laden than many other scientific concepts, or even any other scientific concept. We call the newly identified position "value-conscious naturalism" about disease, and point to some of its theoretical and practical advantages.


Assuntos
Filosofia Médica , Humanos
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