Structure-based discovery and in vitro validation of inhibitors of chloride intracellular channel 4 protein.

The use of computer-aided methods have continued to propel accelerated drug discovery across various disease models, interestingly allowing the specific inhibition of pathogenic targets. Chloride Intracellular Channel Protein 4 (CLIC4) is a novel class of intracellular ion channel highly implicated in tumor and vascular biology. It regulates cell proliferation, apoptosis and angiogenesis; and is involved in multiple pathologic signaling pathways. Absence of specific inhibitors however impedes its advancement to translational research. Here, we integrate structural bioinformatics and experimental research approaches for the discovery and validation of small-molecule inhibitors of CLIC4. High-affinity allosteric binders were identified from a library of 1615 Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved drugs via a high-performance computing-powered blind-docking approach, resulting in the selection of amphotericin B and rapamycin. NMR assays confirmed the binding and conformational disruptive effects of both drugs while they also reversed stress-induced membrane translocation of CLIC4 and inhibited endothelial cell migration. Structural and dynamics simulation studies further revealed that the inhibitory mechanisms of these compounds were hinged on the allosteric modulation of the catalytic glutathione (GSH)-like site loop and the extended catalytic ß loop which may elicit interference with the catalytic activities of CLIC4. Structure-based insights from this study provide the basis for the selective targeting of CLIC4 to treat the associated pathologies.

Intracellular Chloride Channels Regulate Endothelial Metabolic Reprogramming in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension.

Mitochondrial fission and a metabolic switch from oxidative phosphorylation to glycolysis are key features of vascular pathology in pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) and are associated with exuberant endothelial proliferation and apoptosis. The underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. We describe the contribution of two intracellular chloride channel proteins, CLIC1 and CLIC4, both highly expressed in PAH and cancer, to mitochondrial dysfunction and energy metabolism in PAH endothelium. Pathological overexpression of CLIC proteins induces mitochondrial fragmentation, inhibits mitochondrial cristae formation, and induces metabolic shift toward glycolysis in human pulmonary artery endothelial cells, consistent with changes observed in patient-derived cells. Interactions of CLIC proteins with structural components of the inner mitochondrial membrane offer mechanistic insights. Endothelial CLIC4 excision and mitofusin 2 supplementation have protective effects in human PAH cells and preclinical PAH. This study is the first to demonstrate the key role of endothelial intracellular chloride channels in the regulation of mitochondrial structure, biogenesis, and metabolic reprogramming in expression of the PAH phenotype.

A Zn2+-triggered two-step mechanism of CLIC1 membrane insertion and activation into chloride channels.

The chloride intracellular channel (CLIC) protein family displays the unique feature of altering its structure from a soluble form to a membrane-bound chloride channel. CLIC1, a member of this family, is found in the cytoplasm or in internal and plasma membranes, with membrane relocalisation linked to endothelial disfunction, tumour proliferation and metastasis. The molecular switch promoting CLIC1 activation remains under investigation. Here, cellular Cl- efflux assays and immunofluorescence microscopy studies have identified intracellular Zn2+ release as the trigger for CLIC1 activation and membrane insertion. Biophysical assays confirmed specific binding to Zn2+, inducing membrane association and enhancing Cl- efflux in a pH-dependent manner. Together, our results identify a two-step mechanism with Zn2+ binding as the molecular switch promoting CLIC1 membrane insertion, followed by pH-mediated activation of Cl- efflux.

Comorbidities and Risk Factors for Severe Outcomes in COVID-19 Patients in Saudi Arabia: A Retrospective Cohort Study.

PURPOSE: The first novel coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) case in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) was reported in Qatif in March 2020 with continual increase in infection and mortality rates since then. In this study, we aim to determine risk factors which effect severity and mortality rates in a cohort of hospitalized COVID-19 patients in KSA. METHOD: We reviewed medical records of hospitalized patients with confirmed COVID-19 positive results via reverse-transcriptase-polymerase-chain-reaction (RT-PCR) tests at Prince Mohammed Bin Abdulaziz Hospital, Riyadh between May and August 2020. Data were obtained for patient's demography, body mass index (BMI), and comorbidities. Additional data on patients that required intensive care unit (ICU) admission and clinical outcomes were recorded and analyzed with Python Pandas. RESULTS: A total of 565 COVID-19 positive patients were inducted in the study out of which, 63 (11.1%) patients died while 101 (17.9%) patients required ICU admission. Disease incidences were significantly higher in males and non-Saudi nationals. Patients with cardiovascular, respiratory, and renal diseases displayed significantly higher association with ICU admissions (p<0.001) while mortality rates were significantly higher in COVID-19 patients with cardiovascular, respiratory, renal and neurological diseases. Univariate cox proportional hazards regression model showed that COVID-19 positive patients requiring ICU admission [Hazard's ratio, HR=4.2 95% confidence interval, CI 2.5-7.2); p<0.001] with preexisting cardiovascular [HR=4.1 (CI 2.5-6.7); p<0.001] or respiratory [HR=4.0 (CI 2.0-8.1); p=0.010] diseases were at significantly higher risk for mortality among the positive patients. There were no significant differences in mortality rates or ICU admissions among males and females, and across different age groups, BMIs and nationalities. Hospitalized patients with cardiovascular comorbidity had the highest risk of death (HR=2.9, CI 1.7-5.0; p=0.020). CONCLUSION: Independent risk factors for critical outcomes among COVID-19 in KSA include cardiovascular, respiratory and renal comorbidities.

miR-150-PTPMT1-cardiolipin signaling in pulmonary arterial hypertension.

Circulating levels of endothelial miR-150 are reduced in pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) and act as an independent predictor of patient survival, but links between endothelial miR-150 and vascular dysfunction are not well understood. We studied the effects of endothelial miR-150 supplementation and inhibition in PAH mice and cells from patients with idiopathic PAH. The role of selected mediators of miR-150 identified by RNA sequencing was evaluated in vitro and in vivo. Endothelium-targeted miR-150 delivery prevented the disease in Sugen/hypoxia mice, while endothelial knockdown of miR-150 had adverse effects. miR-150 target genes revealed significant associations with PAH pathways, including proliferation, inflammation, and phospholipid signaling, with PTEN-like mitochondrial phosphatase (PTPMT1) most markedly altered. PTPMT1 reduced inflammation and apoptosis and improved mitochondrial function in human pulmonary endothelial cells and blood-derived endothelial colony-forming cells from idiopathic PAH. Beneficial effects of miR-150 in vitro and in vivo were linked with PTPMT1-dependent biosynthesis of mitochondrial phospholipid cardiolipin and reduced expression of pro-apoptotic, pro-inflammatory, and pro-fibrotic genes, including c-MYB, NOTCH3, transforming growth factor ß (TGF-ß), and Col1a1. In conclusion, we are the first to show that miR-150 supplementation attenuates pulmonary endothelial damage induced by vascular stresses and may be considered as a potential therapeutic strategy in PAH.

Nanoscale Study of Calcium Handling Remodeling in Right Ventricular Cardiomyocytes Following Pulmonary Hypertension.

Pulmonary hypertension is a complex disorder characterized by pulmonary vascular remodeling and right ventricular hypertrophy, leading to right heart failure. The mechanisms underlying this process are not well understood. We hypothesize that the structural remodeling occurring in the cardiomyocytes of the right ventricle affects the cytosolic Ca2+ handling leading to arrhythmias. After 12 days of monocrotaline-induced pulmonary hypertension in rats, epicardial mapping showed electrical remodeling in both ventricles. In myocytes isolated from the hypertensive rats, a combination of high-speed camera and confocal line-scan documented a prolongation of Ca2+ transients along with a higher local Ca2+-release activity. These Ca2+ transients were less synchronous than in controls, likely due to disorganized transverse-axial tubular system. In fact, following pulmonary hypertension, hypertrophied right ventricular myocytes showed significantly reduced number of transverse tubules and increased number of axial tubules; however, Stimulation Emission Depletion microscopy demonstrated that the colocalization of L-type Ca2+ channels and RyR2 (ryanodine receptor 2) remained unchanged. Finally, Stimulation Emission Depletion microscopy and super-resolution scanning patch-clamp analysis uncovered a decrease in the density of active L-type Ca2+ channels in right ventricular myocytes with an elevated open probability of the T-tubule anchored channels. This may represent a general mechanism of how nanoscale structural changes at the early stage of pulmonary hypertension impact on the development of the end stage failing phenotype in the right ventricle.

Author Correction: Therapeutic potential of KLF2-induced exosomal microRNAs in pulmonary hypertension.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Therapeutic potential of KLF2-induced exosomal microRNAs in pulmonary hypertension.

Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a severe disorder of lung vasculature that causes right heart failure. Homoeostatic effects of flow-activated transcription factor Krüppel-like factor 2 (KLF2) are compromised in PAH. Here, we show that KLF2-induced exosomal microRNAs, miR-181a-5p and miR-324-5p act together to attenuate pulmonary vascular remodelling and that their actions are mediated by Notch4 and ETS1 and other key regulators of vascular homoeostasis. Expressions of KLF2, miR-181a-5p and miR-324-5p are reduced, while levels of their target genes are elevated in pre-clinical PAH, idiopathic PAH and heritable PAH with missense p.H288Y KLF2 mutation. Therapeutic supplementation of miR-181a-5p and miR-324-5p reduces proliferative and angiogenic responses in patient-derived cells and attenuates disease progression in PAH mice. This study shows that reduced KLF2 signalling is a common feature of human PAH and highlights the potential therapeutic role of KLF2-regulated exosomal miRNAs in PAH and other diseases associated with vascular remodelling.

CLIC4/Arf6 Pathway.

RATIONALE: Increased expression of CLIC4 (chloride intracellular channel 4) is a feature of endothelial dysfunction in pulmonary arterial hypertension, but its role in disease pathology is not fully understood. OBJECTIVE: To identify CLIC4 effectors and evaluate strategies targeting CLIC4 signaling in pulmonary hypertension. METHODS AND RESULTS: Proteomic analysis of CLIC4-interacting proteins in human pulmonary artery endothelial cells identified regulators of endosomal trafficking, including Arf6 (ADP ribosylation factor 6) GTPase activating proteins and clathrin, while CLIC4 overexpression affected protein regulators of vesicular trafficking, lysosomal function, and inflammation. CLIC4 reduced BMPRII (bone morphogenetic protein receptor II) expression and signaling as a result of Arf6-mediated reduction in gyrating clathrin and increased lysosomal targeting of the receptor. BMPRII expression was restored by Arf6 siRNA, Arf inhibitor Sec7 inhibitor H3 (SecinH3), and inhibitors of clathrin-mediated endocytosis but was unaffected by chloride channel inhibitor, indanyloxyacetic acid 94 or Arf1 siRNA. The effects of CLIC4 on NF-κB (nuclear factor-kappa B), HIF (hypoxia-inducible factor), and angiogenic response were prevented by Arf6 siRNA and SecinH3. Sugen/hypoxia mice and monocrotaline rats showed elevated expression of CLIC4, activation of Arf6 and NF-κB, and reduced expression of BMPRII in the lung. These changes were established early during disease development. Lung endothelium-targeted delivery of CLIC4 siRNA or treatment with SecinH3 attenuated the disease, reduced CLIC4/Arf activation, and restored BMPRII expression in the lung. Endothelial colony-forming cells from idiopathic pulmonary hypertensive patients showed upregulation of CLIC4 expression and Arf6 activity, suggesting potential importance of this pathway in the human condition. CONCLUSIONS: Arf6 is a novel effector of CLIC4 and a new therapeutic target in pulmonary hypertension.

Proteomic analysis at the sites of clinical infection with invasive Streptococcus pyogenes.

Invasive Streptococcus pyogenes infections are rare, with often-unexplained severity. Prompt diagnosis is desirable, as deaths can occur rapidly following onset and there is an increased, but preventable, risk to contacts. Here, proteomic analyses of clinical samples from invasive human S. pyogenes infections were undertaken to determine if novel diagnostic targets could be detected, and to augment our understanding of disease pathogenesis. Fluid samples from 17 patients with confirmed invasive S. pyogenes infection (empyema, septic arthritis, necrotising fasciitis) were analysed by proteomics for streptococcal and human proteins; 16/17 samples had detectable S. pyogenes DNA. Nineteen unique S. pyogenes proteins were identified in just 6/17 samples, and 15 of these were found in a single pleural fluid sample including streptococcal inhibitor of complement, trigger factor, and phosphoglycerate kinase. In contrast, 469 human proteins were detected in patient fluids, 177 (38%) of which could be identified as neutrophil proteins, including alpha enolase and lactotransferrin which, together, were found in all 17 samples. Our data suggest that streptococcal proteins are difficult to detect in infected fluid samples. A vast array of human proteins associated with leukocyte activity are, however, present in samples that deserve further evaluation as potential biomarkers of infection.

Tipifarnib prevents development of hypoxia-induced pulmonary hypertension.

Aims: RhoB plays a key role in the pathogenesis of hypoxia-induced pulmonary hypertension. Farnesylated RhoB promotes growth responses in cancer cells and we investigated whether inhibition of protein farnesylation will have a protective effect. Methods and results: The analysis of lung tissues from rodent models and pulmonary hypertensive patients showed increased levels of protein farnesylation. Oral farnesyltransferase inhibitor tipifarnib prevented development of hypoxia-induced pulmonary hypertension in mice. Tipifarnib reduced hypoxia-induced vascular cell proliferation, increased endothelium-dependent vasodilatation and reduced vasoconstriction of intrapulmonary arteries without affecting cell viability. Protective effects of tipifarnib were associated with inhibition of Ras and RhoB, actin depolymerization and increased eNOS expression in vitro and in vivo. Farnesylated-only RhoB (F-RhoB) increased proliferative responses in cultured pulmonary vascular cells, mimicking the effects of hypoxia, while both geranylgeranylated-only RhoB (GG-RhoB), and tipifarnib had an inhibitory effect. Label-free proteomics linked F-RhoB with cell survival, activation of cell cycle and mitochondrial biogenesis. Hypoxia increased and tipifarnib reduced the levels of F-RhoB-regulated proteins in the lung, reinforcing the importance of RhoB as a signalling mediator. Unlike simvastatin, tipifarnib did not increase the expression levels of Rho proteins. Conclusions: Our study demonstrates the importance of protein farnesylation in pulmonary vascular remodelling and provides a rationale for selective targeting of this pathway in pulmonary hypertension.

Neutrophil Extracellular Traps Promote Angiogenesis: Evidence From Vascular Pathology in Pulmonary Hypertension.

OBJECTIVE: Inflammation and dysregulated angiogenesis are features of endothelial dysfunction in pulmonary hypertension. Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), produced by dying neutrophils, contribute to pathogenesis of numerous vascular disorders but their role in pulmonary hypertension has not been studied. We sought evidence of (NETs) formation in pulmonary hypertension and investigated the effect of NETs on endothelial function. APPROACH AND RESULTS: Plasma and lung tissues of patients with pulmonary hypertension were analyzed for NET markers. The effects of NETs on endothelial function were studied in vitro and in vivo. Patients with chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension and idiopathic pulmonary hypertension showed elevated plasma levels of DNA, neutrophil elastase, and myeloperoxidase. NET-forming neutrophils and extensive areas of NETosis were found in the occlusive plexiform lesions and vascularized intrapulmonary thrombi. NETs induced nuclear factor κB-dependent endothelial angiogenesis in vitro and increased vascularization of matrigel plugs in vivo. Angiogenic responses were associated with increased release of matrix metalloproteinase-9, heparin-binding epidermal growth factor-like growth factor, latency-associated peptide of the transforming growth factor ß1, and urokinase-type plasminogen activator, accompanied by increased endothelial permeability and cell motility. NETs-induced responses depended on myeloperoxidase/H2O2-dependent activation of Toll-like receptor 4/nuclear factor κB signaling. NETs stimulated the release of endothelin-1 in HPAECs (human pulmonary artery endothelial cells) and stimulated pulmonary smooth muscle cell proliferation in vitro. CONCLUSIONS: We are the first to implicate NETs in angiogenesis and provide a functional link between NETs and inflammatory angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo. We demonstrate the potential pathological relevance of this in 2 diseases of disordered vascular homeostasis, pulmonary arterial hypertension and chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension.

Aberrant chloride intracellular channel 4 expression contributes to endothelial dysfunction in pulmonary arterial hypertension.

BACKGROUND: Chloride intracellular channel 4 (CLIC4) is highly expressed in the endothelium of remodeled pulmonary vessels and plexiform lesions of patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension. CLIC4 regulates vasculogenesis through endothelial tube formation. Aberrant CLIC4 expression may contribute to the vascular pathology of pulmonary arterial hypertension. METHODS AND RESULTS: CLIC4 protein expression was increased in plasma and blood-derived endothelial cells from patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension and in the pulmonary vascular endothelium of 3 rat models of pulmonary hypertension. CLIC4 gene deletion markedly attenuated the development of chronic hypoxia-induced pulmonary hypertension in mice. Adenoviral overexpression of CLIC4 in cultured human pulmonary artery endothelial cells compromised pulmonary endothelial barrier function and enhanced their survival and angiogenic capacity, whereas CLIC4 shRNA had an inhibitory effect. Similarly, inhibition of CLIC4 expression in blood-derived endothelial cells from patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension attenuated the abnormal angiogenic behavior that characterizes these cells. The mechanism of CLIC4 effects involves p65-mediated activation of nuclear factor-κB, followed by stabilization of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α and increased downstream production of vascular endothelial growth factor and endothelin-1. CONCLUSION: Increased CLIC4 expression is an early manifestation and mediator of endothelial dysfunction in pulmonary hypertension.

Proteomic analysis of lung tissues from patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension.

BACKGROUND: Pulmonary arterial hypertension is a disorder of vascular remodeling causing increased resistance to pulmonary blood flow. The expression of proteins in lungs from pulmonary arterial hypertension patients was investigated in an unbiased approach to further understand the pathobiology of this disease. METHODS AND RESULTS: Label-free liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry was used to compare protein profiles in surgical samples of lungs from 8 patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension and 8 control subjects. More than 300 proteins were detected. On the basis of robust criteria, the levels of 25 proteins varied between the 2 groups. The majority of upregulated proteins were associated with cell growth, proliferation, and cell metabolism. Novel findings included an increased expression of chloride intracellular channel 4, receptor for advanced glycation end products, and periostin. Increased expression of chloride intracellular channel 4, a multifunctional protein involved in angiogenesis, and several signaling pathways implicated in pulmonary arterial hypertension--transforming growth factor-ß, vascular endothelial growth factor, and bone morphogenetic protein--was confirmed by Western blotting and localized predominantly to endothelial cells in occlusive and plexiform vascular lesions. CONCLUSIONS: Label-free proteomics identified differences in the expression of several proteins in the pulmonary arterial hypertension lung, many of which are relevant to the disease process. Increased expression of chloride intracellular channel 4 may be pertinent to the disorganized angiogenesis of plexiform lesions.

Identification and assessment of plasma lysozyme as a putative biomarker of atherosclerosis.

OBJECTIVE: To identify a plasma biomarker of atheromatous disease. METHODS AND RESULTS: Surface-enhanced laser desorption ionization-time-of-flight mass spectrometry was used to identify possible plasma protein biomarkers of atheromatous disease in patients presenting with chronic stable angina pectoris by comparing those with 3-vessel disease with those without any evidence of coronary artery disease. The level of a 14.7-kDa protein was elevated; this protein was isolated and identified as a lysozyme. Arterial plasma lysozyme levels, measured by immunoassay, confirmed this observation in separate cohorts of patients. The application of arterial plasma lysozyme levels to 197 patients with varying degrees of coronary artery disease, using a cutoff value of 1.5 microg/mL, was able to distinguish patients with 1 or more occluded coronary arteries, with 86% sensitivity and 93% specificity. Of 20 patients with carotid atheroma, 19 had increased arterial plasma levels. In contrast, C-reactive protein levels showed no association with disease severity. Venous lysozyme levels in patients with carotid atheroma were shown to decrease after intensive atorvastatin treatment. CONCLUSION: Raised plasma lysozyme levels may be a useful biomarker of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and response to therapy. Additional studies to investigate this are warranted.

Identification of plasma protein biomarkers associated with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension.

We have employed SELDI-TOF MS to screen for differentially expressed proteins in plasma samples from 27 patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) and 26 healthy controls. One ion (m/z approximately 8600) that was found to be elevated in IPAH was validated by SELDI-TOF MS analysis of a second and separate set of plasma samples comprising 30 IPAH patients and 19 controls. The m/z 8600 was purified from plasma by sequential ion exchange and reverse-phase chromatographies and SDS-PAGE. It was identified, following trypsin digestion, by MS peptide analysis as the complement component, complement 4a (C4a) des Arg. Plasma levels of C4a des Arg measured by ELISA confirmed that the levels were significantly higher (p < 0.0001) in IPAH patients (2.12 +/- 0.27 microg/mL) compared with normal controls (0.53 +/- 0.05 microg/mL). A cut-off level of 0.6 microg/mL correctly classified 92% of IPAH patients and 80% of controls. Further studies will be needed to determine its performance as a diagnostic biomarker, whether used alone or in combination with other biomarkers. Nevertheless, this study demonstrates that putative biomarkers characteristic of IPAH can be identified using a conjoint SELDI-TOF MS - proteomics approach.