Business intelligence tools to optimize the appropriateness of the diagnostic process for clinical and epidemiologic purposes in a multicenter veterinary pathology service.

Laboratory tests provide essential support to the veterinary practitioner, and their use has grown exponentially. This growth is the result of several factors, such as the eradication of historical diseases, the occurrence of multifactorial diseases, and the obligation to control endemic and epidemic diseases. However, the introduction of novel techniques is counterbalanced by economic constraints, and the establishment of evidence- and consensus-based guidelines is essential to support the pathologist. Therefore, we developed standardized protocols, categorized by species, type of production, age, and syndrome at the Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), a multicenter institution for animal health and food safety. We have 72 protocols in use for livestock, poultry, and pets, categorized as, for example, "bovine enteric calf", "rabbit respiratory", "broiler articular". Each protocol consists of a panel of tests, divided into 'mandatory' and 'ancillary', to be selected by the pathologist in order to reach the final diagnosis. After autopsy, the case is categorized into a specific syndrome, subsequently referred to as a syndrome-specific panel of analyses. The activity of the laboratories is monitored through a web-based dynamic reporting system developed using a business intelligence product (QlikView) connected to the laboratory information management system (IZILAB). On a daily basis, reports become available at general, laboratory, and case levels, and are updated as needed. The reporting system highlights epidemiologic variations in the field and allows verification of compliance with the protocols within the organization. The diagnostic protocols are revised annually to increase system efficiency and to address stakeholder requests.

Molecular epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from dairy farms in North-eastern Italy.

Transmission of Staphylococcus aureus along the dairy production chain is an emerging public health problem with human, veterinary, and food safety issues. The prevalence of multidrug-resistant, particularly methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), has steadily increased in several European countries. In this study, the prevalence of S. aureus in raw cow milk and farm workers was investigated, and the trajectories of MRSA transmission at the primary stage of the dairy chain were assessed. To this purpose, a longitudinal survey was conducted in 618 dairy farms in two contiguous regions with high livestock density in North-eastern Italy. S. aureus contamination of bulk tank milk (BTM) was observed in more than 80% of farms, while MRSA prevalence was 3.6% and 15.9% in BTM and farm workers, respectively. The majority of MRSA isolates from both BTM and farm workers were assigned to ST398, and showed a worrisome multidrug-resistant phenotype. Enterotoxin and Panton-Valentine leukocidin genes were detected in 11.5% and 4.9% of MRSA isolates from both sources. Nearly all MRSA isolates from workers belonged to the same epidemiological type as BTM isolates from the corresponding farm, denoting a bidirectional MRSA transmission pattern. A focus on the ST398 spa type t899 MRSA lineage in the Italian livestock system highlighted the presence of two major clusters whose dissemination was likely facilitated by the selective pressure imposed by antimicrobial use in animal farming. Our findings emphasize the need for continuous monitoring of MRSA along the dairy production chain, not only to avoid transmission between animals and exposed workers, but also to contain the risk of raw milk and dairy product contamination by multidrug resistant and toxigenic strain.

A Longitudinal Case Study on Dissemination of ST398 Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Within a Dairy Cow Herd.

The study was conducted to describe the dynamics of ST398 methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) on a dairy herd in northeastern Italy. MRSA was first identified in this herd of 120 cows in 2016, after which the herd was sampled once every 3 months for 1 year (April 2016-May 2017). Samples collected included nasal swabs and milk samples from cows and nasal swabs from farmworkers. In addition, pen fencing and teat milk liners were swabbed and air samples from cow pens and the milking parlor were collected. All samples were tested for MRSA using a selective medium; positive isolates were confirmed by mecA PCR. A representative set of MRSA isolates was genotyped using spa typing and multilocus sequence typing. Overall, 34 (mean 23%, range 16-30%) milking cows were found harboring MRSA in the mammary gland and only 6 recovered from infection or colonization. The mean incidence rate was 14% (range 8-20%), mean cure rate was 23% (range 13-43%), and estimated basic reproduction number (R0) was 1.08. The average of positive quarters found was 35.1% and most of the positive quarters (82.4%) developed subclinical mastitis. The mean duration of MRSA colonization in quarters during the study was 247 days, but quarters affected by subclinical mastitis harbored MRSA for a longer time than healthy ones (285 days vs. 131 days). After the second sampling, the farmer segregated MRSA-positive cows from the uninfected cows and milked them last. Despite segregation, 25 newly infected or colonized cows were detected. MRSA isolates from cows, environment, and two farmworkers belonged to the same sequence type (ST398) and spa type (t034). This study highlights the ability of ST398 MRSA to cause a persistent infection of the mammary gland and to survive in the farm environment.

Survey, characterization and antimicrobial susceptibility of Clostridium difficile from marine bivalve shellfish of North Adriatic Sea.

Clostridium difficile is a major cause of infectious diarrhea associated to healthcare settings. Community-acquired infections are increasingly reported in the last decade and exposure other than to symptomatic patients rather to contaminated foods or animals is feasible. Occurrence of C. difficile in shellfish raises concern because spores can survive the cooking temperatures given that shellfish is often consumed poorly cooked or raw. Aim of our study was to investigate whether shellfish represents a reservoir of C. difficile human PCR-ribotypes (RTs). 702 shellfish samples of farmed and wild bivalve mollusc species were collected over the 2015-2017 period in North Adriatic Italian Sea to investigate contamination with C. difficile and characterize the isolates in terms of genotypic variability and antimicrobial resistance profile. C. difficile was detected in 16.9% (CI: 14.1%-19.8%) samples: 11.6% mussels and 23.2% clams. Compared to mussels, clams were significantly associated with detection of C. difficile (OR = 2.4, P < 0.01). Overall 113 C. difficile isolates were genotyped and 75 (66.4%) were toxigenic. Fifty-three different RTs were identified. 40.7% C. difficile isolates were among the RTs most commonly involved in human infection in Europe. The profile of antimicrobial susceptibility was determined by E-test; microbiological resistance was frequent against clindamycin (17%), erythromycin (23%), rifampicin (8.8%) and moxifloxacin (10.6%). All isolates were susceptible to metronidazole and one showed MIC > ECOFF for vancomycin. C. difficile strains showed high variety in RTs, most of them already detected in other animals or known as highly virulent and epidemic in humans. These results prompt towards investigating on specific risk mitigation measures against C. difficile and are preliminary for any source attribution and risk assessment study.

Virulence gene profiles of rabbit enteropathogenic Escherichia coli strains isolated in Northern Italy.

The virulence gene profile of 26 rabbit enteropathogenic Escherichia coli strains, isolated from 17 colibacillosis outbreaks located in two regions of Northern Italy, was determined using an Echerichia coli virulence DNA microarray. All strains were classified according to their determined biotype, sero- and phylo-group. The distribution of virulence genes encoding for the Locus of enterocyte effacement (LEE), LEE type III secretion system (T3SS), non-LEE T3SS translocated proteins and adherence factors was also determined. All strains but one belonged to phylogroups A and B1. A prevalent association between the O103 serogroup with the rhamnose-negative phenotype (biotype 12 or 14) was found. The most prevalent LEE profile found in tested strains was ler/cesT/espA-1/espB-3/tir-1/eae(beta)/espD-2/escN/eprJ. All strains possessed either the adhesive factor rabbit-2 (afr/2) or the plasmid Rabbit adherence locus (ral) gene and 24 of them an additional individual or combined set of colonization factors efa1/lifA, lpfA and paa genes. Finally, the combined or single presence of a set of LEE and/or non-LEE effector proteins encoding genes, namely espG, cif, map and nle family genes, attested to the genetic potential of investigated strains to induce pathologic lesions to the host. The application of microarray-based technologies in assessing the genetic profile of rabbit E. coli is a reliable, cost-effective candidate for large scale investigations in monitoring programs aimed to survey the circulation of pathogenic strains within rabbit production units, their zoonotic genetic potential and to select E. coli strains eligible for vaccinal prophylaxis in fattening rabbit production.

Detection of Clostridium tetani Neurotoxins Inhibited In Vivo by Botulinum Antitoxin B: Potential for Misleading Mouse Test Results in Food Controls.

The presence of botulinum neurotoxin-producing Clostridia (BPC) in food sources is a public health concern. In favorable environmental conditions, BPC can produce botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) outside or inside the vertebrate host, leading to intoxications or toxico-infectious forms of botulism, respectively. BPC in food are almost invariably detected either by PCR protocols targeted at the known neurotoxin-encoding genes, or by the mouse test to assay for the presence of BoNTs in the supernatants of enrichment broths inoculated with the tested food sample. The sample is considered positive for BPC when the supernatant contains toxic substances that are lethal to mice, heat-labile and neutralized in vivo by appropriate polyclonal antibodies raised against purified BoNTs of different serotypes. Here, we report the detection in a food sample of a Clostridium tetani strain that produces tetanus neurotoxins (TeNTs) with the above-mentioned characteristics: lethal for mice, heat-labile and neutralized by botulinum antitoxin type B. Notably, neutralization occurred with two different commercially available type B antitoxins, but not with type A, C, D, E and F antitoxins. Although TeNT and BoNT fold very similarly, evidence that antitoxin B antiserum can neutralize the neurotoxic effect of TeNT in vivo has not been documented before. The presence of C. tetani strains in food can produce misleading results in BPC detection using the mouse test.

Longitudinal study on antimicrobial consumption and resistance in rabbit farming.

Reliable indicators of antimicrobial consumption (AMC) measured with harmonised data and supported by indicators for antimicrobial resistance (AMR) at herd level are necessary to target antimicrobial misuse in food-producing animals. AMC data in 2010-2015 in 32 Italian industrial rabbit holdings weighted with semester production and standardised with animal daily doses (ADDs) were collected. Herd-level AMR against eight antimicrobials was assessed in Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus hirae collected in 2014-2015. Escherichia coli were assessed for mcr-1 and mcr-2 genes. To produce 1 kg of live rabbit, a mean of 71.8 ADDs was used. Overall AMC reduced over time (P < 0.05) owing to lowering consumption of tetracyclines (P < 0.05) and colistin (P < 0.01), but consumption of quinolones (P < 0.05), bacitracin (P < 0.01) and sulfonamides (P = 0.017) increased. All except one indicator E. coli were wild-type for cefotaxime, whereas 97% displayed reduced susceptibility to tetracyclines, 89% to trimethoprim, 63% to enrofloxacin, 24% to chloramphenicol and 21% to colistin. mcr-1 was detected in 50/320 E. coli isolates from 15/32 holdings; mcr-2 was not detected in 58 isolates with colistin MIC ≥ 2 mg/L. All 305 enterococci were wild-type for ampicillin, ciprofloxacin and vancomycin and displayed reduced tetracycline susceptibility. The mean antimicrobial resistance index (ARI) was 0.5 for E. coli and 0.3 for enterococci. ARI was significantly correlated with AMC at herd level for enterococci (P = 0.008) but not E. coli where high ARI levels were found in a few holdings with low AMC.

Identification and characterization of Clostridium botulinum group III field strains by matrix-assisted laser desorption-ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS).

Animal botulism is primarily due to botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) types C, D or their chimeric variants C/D or D/C, produced by Clostridium botulinum group III, which appears to include the genetically indistinguishable Clostridium haemolyticum and Clostridium novyi. In the present study, we used matrix-assisted laser desorption-ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI TOF MS) to identify and characterize 81 BoNT-producing Clostridia isolated in 47 episodes of animal botulism. The instrument's default database, containing no entries for Clostridium botulinum, permitted reliable identification of 26 strains at the genus level. Although supplementation of the database with reference strains enhanced the instrument's ability to identify the neurotoxic strains at the genus level, resolution was not sufficient to recognize field strains at species level. Characterization by MALDI TOF confirmed the well-documented phenotypic and genetic differences between Clostridium botulinum strains of serotypes normally implicated in human botulism (A, B, E, F) and other Clostridium species able to produce BoNTs type C and D. The chimeric and non-chimeric field strains grouped separately. In particular, very low similarity was found between two non-chimeric type C field strains isolated in the same outbreak and the other field strains. This difference was comparable with the differences among the various Clostridia species included in the study. Characterization by MALDI TOF confirmed that BoNT-producing Clostridia isolated from animals are closely related and indistinguishable at the species level from Clostridium haemolyticum and Clostridium novyi reference strains. On the contrary, there seem to be substantial differences among chimeric and some non-chimeric type C strains.

Molecular characterization of Clostridium perfringens strains isolated from diseased turkeys in Italy.

One hundred and six Clostridium perfringens field strains, isolated from diseased turkeys in Italy between 2006 and 2015, were toxinotyped by polymerase chain reaction. Strains were derived from intestines (87), livers (17) and subcutaneous tissues (2). In addition to the four major toxins, strains were also screened for NetB toxin, enterotoxin and beta2 toxin encoding genes. The intestinal gross lesions of turkeys with enteric disorders were statistically studied with respect to the presence of C. perfringens beta2 toxin encoding gene and coccidia in the gut. All the isolates belonged to the toxinotype A and were netB negative. Enterotoxin (cpe) and beta2 toxin (cpb2) encoding genes were detected in two (2.63%) and 76 (71.69%) strains, respectively. Toxinotype results agree with the few published reports concerning the genetic characterization of C. perfringens of turkey origin. On the contrary, the presence of netB and cpb2 genes differs from the results of a previous study where these genes were detected respectively in 6.6% and in 0.5% of the tested strains. Necrotic enteritis in turkeys was not statistically correlated either to the presence of cpb2 gene, or to the synergistic effect operated by coccidia, even though a high percentage of birds with these protozoa in the gut showed necrotic enteritis lesions (64.29%).

Molecular characterization and antimicrobial susceptibility of Clostridium difficile isolated from rabbits raised for meat production.

Clostridium difficile is an important cause of enteric disease in humans and animals. Recent studies demonstrated a genetic overlap between C. difficile isolated from animals and humans suggesting animals as possible reservoir for human pathogenic strains. This study was a preliminary investigation on the occurrence of C. difficile in rabbits raised in industrial holdings for food production and aimed to characterise isolates and estimate their antimicrobial susceptibility. C. difficile isolates were characterized by toxin profiles, toxinotyping and PCR-ribotyping. The MICs of six antibiotics were determined using E-test. Between 2007 and 2013, 285 industrial holdings (representing 40% of the national census) submitted rabbits to our laboratory for diagnostic purposes, among these holdings, groups of three to five post-weaned rabbits were sampled once by convenience. 1279 samples of caecal content were collected. The overall isolation rate of C. difficile from the enteric specimen was 3% (38/1279), with no difference among animals affected or not by enteric disorders. Among isolates 66% (25/38) were toxigenic. Sixteen different PCR-ribotypes (RTs) were identified. Among the toxigenic strains RT-014/020, RT-078 and RT-012 were found in at least three rabbit holdings. According to the ECOFF threshold, 82% (31/38) C. difficile isolates displayed a reduced susceptibility to at least one and 18% (7/38) to three tested antimicrobials. Rabbits are colonized by heterogeneous C. difficile ribotypes many of which are commonly isolated in humans. One third of isolates displayed a reduced susceptibility to MTZ, the first choice antimicrobial for human CDI treatment. According to our findings rabbits are a potential source of C. difficile for humans.

Evidence for a natural humoral response in dairy cattle affected by persistent botulism sustained by non-chimeric type C strains.

Bovine botulism is a sporadic acute disease that usually causes catastrophic losses in the herds. The unusual clinical evolution of a persistent mild outbreak in a dairy herd, prompted us to characterize the neurotoxin gene profile of the strain involved and to evaluate whether seroconversion had occurred. Diagnosis was based on mild classical symptoms and was supported by PCR and bacteriological findings, which revealed the involvement of a non-mosaic type C strain. An in-house ELISA was developed to detect antibodies to botulinum neurotoxin type C and its performance was evaluated in a vaccination study. Fifty days after the index case, fecal and serum samples were collected from the 14 animals of the herd and screened for Clostridium botulinum and anti-botulinum neurotoxin antibodies type C, respectively. The in-house developed ELISA was also used to test 100 sera samples randomly collected from 20 herds. Strong ELISA reactions were observed in 3 convalescent and 5 asymptomatic animals involved in the studied outbreak. The ELISA-positive cows all tested positive for non-mosaic C. botulinum type C in the feces and the same strain was also detected in the alfalfa hay, suspected to be the carrier source. Ten out of the 100 randomly collected sera tested positive for anti-botulinum neurotoxin type C antibodies: 7 had borderline values and 3 from the same herd showed titers three times higher than the cut-off. We concluded that type C botulism in cattle may occur with variable severity and that prolonged exposure to sublethal doses of botulinum neurotoxin C may occur, resulting in detectable antibodies.

In vivo studies to highlight possible illegal treatments of rabbits with carbadox and olaquindox.

For the treatment of rabbit dysentery and bacterial enteritis, veterinary practitioners often adopt veterinary medicinal products authorised for other food-producing species, but in some cases non-authorised drugs frequently used in the past, such as carbadox and olaquindox, might be illegally adopted. To verify the carbadox and olaquindox distribution and persistence in rabbit tissues, two independent in vivo studies were carried out. In the first study, 24 healthy rabbits received water medicated with carbadox at 100 mg l(-1) over a period 28 days, whereas in the second one, 24 healthy rabbits were administered water containing olaquindox at 100 mg l(-1). In each study rabbits were randomly assigned to four groups to be sacrificed respectively at 0, 5, 10 and 20 days from treatment withdrawal, for depletion studies. A control group of six animals was adopted for control and as a reservoir of blank tissues. Muscle and liver samples collected from each treated animal were stored at -20°C pending the analysis. Sensitive and robust liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analytical methods were set up for the parent compounds and their main metabolites quinoxaline-2-carboxylic acid, desoxycarbadox and 3-methylquinoxaline-2-carboxylic acid to verify their residual. Data collected demonstrate that the combination of liver as target matrix, quinoxaline-2-carboxylic acid and 3-methylquinoxaline-2-carboxylic acid as marker residue and enzymatic digestion is strategic to evidence carbadox and/or olaquindox illegal treatments in rabbits, even 20 days after treatment withdrawal at concentration levels higher than 0.5 µg kg(-1). This findings suggests that liver should be proposed as target matrix for official control in national monitoring plan.

Antibiotic resistance patterns and PCR-ribotyping of Clostridium difficile strains isolated from swine and dogs in Italy.

Recent studies suggest animals, in particular farm and companion animals, as possible reservoir for Clostridium difficile human pathogenic strains. The aim of this study was to give a first characterization of C. difficile isolates from Italian swine and dogs. In total, 10 different PCR-ribotypes were identified among porcine strains and six among canine strains. The predominant type found among porcine strains was 078 (50%), whereas the most frequently detected among canine strains was the non-toxinogenic 010 (64%). Considering the CLSI breakpoints, 60% of porcine isolates was resistant to ERY, 35% to MXF, 15% to CLI, 5% to RIF, and none to MTZ or VAN. Among dogs, 51% of strains was resistant to CLI, 46% to ERY, 21% to MTZ and 5% to MXF or RIF, and none to VAN. Five porcine strains (10%) and 9 canine isolates (41%) were MDR. Interestingly, 8 MDR canine strains were highly resistant to MTZ, with MICs ≥32 mg/L. Considering the EUCAST cut-off for MTZ (MIC >2 mg/L), 13 canine isolates and one porcine strain were found with reduced susceptibility to MTZ (MICs ranging from 3 to ≥256 mg/L). Swine and canine strains showing resistance or reduced susceptibility to MTZ belonged to PCR-ribotype 010 and 078. These PCR-ribotypes have been associated to reduced susceptibility to MTZ also in human, suggesting a potential risk for the emergence of C. difficile strains resistant to the current first-line antibiotic for CDI treatment. The agar incorporation method (AIM) was confirmed as the best method to detect C. difficile strains with this phenotype also after strains manipulations. The results obtained add further evidences about the possible role of animals as source of MDR C. difficile strains and reservoir of antibiotic resistance determinants.

First reporting of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) ST398 in an industrial rabbit holding and in farm-related people.

Livestock-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (LA-MRSA) has been described in food-producing animals and farm or slaughterhouse workers involved in the primary industrial production of swine, bovine and poultry. This communication describes the first case of LA-MRSA (ST398, spa types t034 and t5210) occurring in rabbits raised intensively for meat production and involving farm workers or their family members. In 2012-2013, in a study involving 40 rabbit industrial holdings in Italy, one farm was found to have rabbits colonized or infected with MRSA. Four farm workers and one of their relatives were found to be carrying MRSA. In this case holding, rabbits, people and the holding environment were further investigated and followed up by a second sampling five months later. MRSA was found in 48% (11/23) and 25% (15/59) of the rabbits carrying S. aureus at first and second samplings, respectively. Five months after first detection, some farm workers or family members were still MRSA carriers. Surface samples (2/10) and air samples (2/3) were contaminated with MRSA. Air samples yielded MRSA counts of 5 and 15CFU/m(3). MRSA from rabbits and people collected at first sampling were spa types t034 and t5210 belonging to ST398. The MRSA isolates from rabbits and persons tested at second sampling were t034 and t5210, but spa types t1190 and t2970 were also detected in MRSA isolates from rabbits. Tracing the epidemiological pattern earlier may prevent further spread of LA-MRSA in these food producing animals.

Canine nephrotoxicosis induced by melamine-contaminated pet food in Italy.

Two young dogs belonging to the same kennel placed nearby Treviso (north-eastern Italy) died at the end of 2008 with clinical signs of renal failure. They were subjected to necropsy and were evaluated for histopathological and toxicological changes. Both the animals had same clinical signs and laboratory evidence of uremia. Post mortem investigations revealed severe nephrotoxicosis, associated with uroliths deposition within renal tubules and pelvis. The predominant crystal type was identical to those observed in the kidneys of animals involved in the 2004 and 2007 melamine-associated renal failure epidemic in Asia and US, providing evidence that they share the same causative agent. High doses of melamine were detected in the pet food administered to the dogs, likewise melamine was identified in renal tissue from one dead dog and in urine samples from both the animals. Therefore, a diagnosis of melamine-related nephrotoxicosis was made. To the author's knowledge this is the first report about melamine contamination of pet food from EU.

A survey of Clostridium spiroforme antimicrobial susceptibility in rabbit breeding.

Rabbit meat breeding may be heavily affected by enterotoxaemia due to Clostridium spiroforme. Data on its antimicrobial susceptibility are insufficient, presumably because of difficulties in cultivating and identifying the pathogen. Our aim is therefore to provide this information to veterinary practitioners by focusing on a panel of therapeutics used in intensive rabbit units. Lincomycin was also checked in order to investigate the origin of resistance to macrolides. Minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were determined with the agar dilution method according to the CLSI M11-A7 protocol (2007). MIC(50) and MIC(90) were, respectively, 64 and 64microg/ml for tiamulin, 32 and 32microg/ml for norfloxacin, 0.063 and 0.125microg/ml for amoxicillin, and 8 and 16microg/ml for doxycycline. MIC(50) and MIC(90) were 256microg/ml for sulphadimethoxine, spiramycin and lincomycin. Our results have shown that intrinsic or acquired antimicrobial resistances are diffuse in the C. spiroforme population and suggest focusing on prevention rather than on treatment of clostridial overgrowth, by reducing risk factors and using antimicrobials prudently.

Development of PCR protocols for specific identification of Clostridium spiroforme and detection of sas and sbs genes.

Rabbit diarrhoea caused by toxigenic Clostridium spiroforme is responsible for significant losses in commercial rabbitries but the accurate identification of this micro-organism is difficult due to the absence of both a commercial biochemical panel and biomolecular methods. The aim of this study was therefore to develop PCR protocols for specific detection of C. spiroforme and its binary toxin encoding genes. The C. spiroforme specie-specific primers were designed based on its 16S rDNA published sequences and the specificity of these primers was tested with DNA extracted from closely related Clostridium species. The sa/bs_F and sa/bs _R C. spiroforme binary toxin specific primers were designed to be complementary, respectively, to a sequence of 21 bases on the 3' and of sas gene and on the 5' of the sbs gene. The detection limits of in house developed PCR protocols were 25CFU/ml of bacterial suspension and 1.38x10(4)CFU/g of caecal content for specie-specific primers and 80CFU/ml of bacterial suspension and 2.8x10(4)CFU/g of caecal content in case of sa/bs primers. These results indicated that the described PCR assays enable specific identification of C. spiroforme and its binary toxin genes and can therefore be considered a rapid, reliable tool for the diagnosis of C. spiroforme-related enterotoxaemia.

First report of parasitic esophagitis by Streptocara incognita in Muscovy ducks (Cairina moschata domesticus) in Italy.

This work describes the first outbreak of streptocariasis by Streptocara incognita reported from Italy. The disease was observed in a backyard flock of 62 ducks (Cairina moschata domesticus) located in Treviso, northeastern Italy. Fifteen birds died in a period of 2 wk, showing debilitation and emaciation. Two ducks were submitted for postmortem examination and an esophagitis associated with nematodes was observed. The nematodes were identified as Streptocara incognita.