Sublimed C60 for efficient and repeatable perovskite-based solar cells.

Thermally evaporated C60 is a near-ubiquitous electron transport layer in state-of-the-art p-i-n perovskite-based solar cells. As perovskite photovoltaic technologies are moving toward industrialization, batch-to-batch reproducibility of device performances becomes crucial. Here, we show that commercial as-received (99.75% pure) C60 source materials may coalesce during repeated thermal evaporation processes, jeopardizing such reproducibility. We find that the coalescence is due to oxygen present in the initial source powder and leads to the formation of deep states within the perovskite bandgap, resulting in a systematic decrease in solar cell performance. However, further purification (through sublimation) of the C60 to 99.95% before evaporation is found to hinder coalescence, with the associated solar cell performances being fully reproducible after repeated processing. We verify the universality of this behavior on perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells by demonstrating their open-circuit voltages and fill factors to remain at 1950 mV and 81% respectively, over eight repeated processes using the same sublimed C60 source material. Notably, one of these cells achieved a certified power conversion efficiency of 30.9%. These findings provide insights crucial for the advancement of perovskite photovoltaic technologies towards scaled production with high process yield.

Pathways toward commercial perovskite/silicon tandem photovoltaics.

Perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells offer a promising route to increase the power conversion efficiency of crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells beyond the theoretical single-junction limitations at an affordable cost. In the past decade, progress has been made toward the fabrication of highly efficient laboratory-scale tandems through a range of vacuum- and solution-based perovskite processing technologies onto various types of c-Si bottom cells. However, to become a commercial reality, the transition from laboratory to industrial fabrication will require appropriate, scalable input materials and manufacturing processes. In addition, perovskite/silicon tandem research needs to increasingly focus on stability, reliability, throughput of cell production and characterization, cell-to-module integration, and accurate field-performance prediction and evaluation. This Review discusses these aspects in view of contemporary solar cell manufacturing, offers insights into the possible pathways toward commercial perovskite/silicon tandem photovoltaics, and highlights research opportunities to realize this goal.

Efficient and reliable encapsulation for perovskite/silicon tandem solar modules.

Perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells have a tremendous potential to boost renewable electricity production thanks to their very high performance combined with promising cost structure. However, for actual field deployment, any solar cell technology needs to be assembled into modules, where the associated processes involve several challenges that may affect both the performance and stability of the devices. For instance, due to its hygroscopic nature, ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) is incompatible with perovskite-based photovoltaics. To circumvent this issue, we investigate here two alternative encapsulant polymers for the packaging of perovskite/silicon tandems into minimodules: a thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) and a thermoplastic polyolefin (TPO) elastomer. To gauge their impact on tandem-module performance and stability, we performed two internationally established accelerated module stability tests (IEC 61215): damp heat exposure and thermal cycling. Finally, to better understand the thermomechanical properties of the two encapsulants and gain insight into their relation to the thermal cycling of encapsulated tandems, we performed a dynamic mechanical thermal analysis. Our understanding of the packaging process of the tandem module provides useful insights for the development of commercially viable perovskite photovoltaics.

Enhanced optoelectronic coupling for perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells.

Monolithic perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells are of great appeal as they promise high power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) at affordable cost. In state-of-the-art tandems, the perovskite top cell is electrically coupled to a silicon heterojunction bottom cell by means of a self-assembled monolayer (SAM), anchored on a transparent conductive oxide (TCO), which enables efficient charge transfer between the subcells1-3. Yet reproducible, high-performance tandem solar cells require energetically homogeneous SAM coverage, which remains challenging, especially on textured silicon bottom cells. Here, we resolve this issue by using ultrathin (5-nm) amorphous indium zinc oxide (IZO) as the interconnecting TCO, exploiting its high surface-potential homogeneity resulting from the absence of crystal grains and higher density of SAM anchoring sites when compared with commonly used crystalline TCOs. Combined with optical enhancements through equally thin IZO rear electrodes and improved front contact stacks, an independently certified PCE of 32.5% was obtained, which ranks among the highest for perovskite/silicon tandems. Our ultrathin transparent contact approach reduces indium consumption by approximately 80%, which is of importance to sustainable photovoltaics manufacturing4.

Life on the Urbach Edge.

The Urbach energy is an expression of the static and dynamic disorder in a semiconductor and is directly accessible via optical characterization techniques. The strength of this metric is that it elegantly captures the optoelectronic performance potential of a semiconductor in a single number. For solar cells, the Urbach energy is found to be predictive of a material's minimal open-circuit-voltage deficit. Performance calculations considering the Urbach energy give more realistic power conversion efficiency limits than from classical Shockley-Queisser considerations. The Urbach energy is often also found to correlate well with the Stokes shift and (inversely) with the carrier mobility of a semiconductor. Here, we discuss key features, underlying physics, measurement techniques, and implications for device fabrication, underlining the utility of this metric.

Efficient and stable perovskite-silicon tandem solar cells through contact displacement by MgFx.

The performance of perovskite solar cells with inverted polarity (p-i-n) is still limited by recombination at their electron extraction interface, which also lowers the power conversion efficiency (PCE) of p-i-n perovskite-silicon tandem solar cells. A MgFx interlayer with thickness of ~1 nanometer at the perovskite/C60 interface favorably adjusts the surface energy of the perovskite layer through thermal evaporation, which facilitates efficient electron extraction and displaces C60 from the perovskite surface to mitigate nonradiative recombination. These effects enable a champion open-circuit voltage of 1.92 volts, an improved fill factor of 80.7%, and an independently certified stabilized PCE of 29.3% for a monolithic perovskite-silicon tandem solar cell ~1 square centimeter in area. The tandem retained ~95% of its initial performance after damp-heat testing (85°C at 85% relative humidity) for >1000 hours.

Scaled Deposition of Ti3C2Tx MXene on Complex Surfaces: Application Assessment as Rear Electrodes for Silicon Heterojunction Solar Cells.

Two-dimensional transition metal carbides (MXenes) are of great interest as electrode materials for a variety of applications, including solar cells, due to their tunable optoelectronic properties, high metallic conductivity, and attractive solution processability. However, thus far, MXene electrodes have only been exploited for lab-scale device applications. Here, to demonstrate the potential of MXene electrodes at an industry-relevant level, we implemented a scalable spray coating technique to deposit highly conductive (ca. 8000 S/cm, at a ca. 55 nm thickness) Ti3C2Tx films (Tx: surface functional groups, i.e., -OH, -O, -F) via an automated spray system. We employed these Ti3C2Tx films as rear electrodes for silicon heterojunction solar cells as a proof of concept. The spray-deposited MXene flakes have formed a conformal coating on top of the indium tin oxide (ITO)-coated random pyramidal textured silicon wafers, leading to >20% power conversion efficiency (PCE) over both medium-sized (4.2 cm2) and large (243 cm2, i.e., industry-sized 6 in. pseudosquare wafers) cell areas. Notably, the Ti3C2Tx-rear-contacted devices have retained around 99% of their initial PCE for more than 600 days of ambient air storage. Their performance is comparable with state-of-the-art solar cells contacted with sputtered silver electrodes. Our findings demonstrate the high-throughput potential of spray-coated MXene-based electrodes for solar cells in addition to a wider variety of electronic device applications.

Damp heat-stable perovskite solar cells with tailored-dimensionality 2D/3D heterojunctions.

If perovskite solar cells (PSCs) with high power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) are to be commercialized, they must achieve long-term stability, which is usually assessed with accelerated degradation tests. One of the persistent obstacles for PSCs has been successfully passing the damp-heat test (85°C and 85% relative humidity), which is the standard for verifying the stability of commercial photovoltaic (PV) modules. We fabricated damp heat-stable PSCs by tailoring the dimensional fragments of two-dimensional perovskite layers formed at room temperature with oleylammonium iodide molecules; these layers passivate the perovskite surface at the electron-selective contact. The resulting inverted PSCs deliver a 24.3% PCE and retain >95% of their initial value after >1000 hours at damp-heat test conditions, thereby meeting one of the critical industrial stability standards for PV modules.

Tin Oxide Electron-Selective Layers for Efficient, Stable, and Scalable Perovskite Solar Cells.

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have become a promising photovoltaic (PV) technology, where the evolution of the electron-selective layers (ESLs), an integral part of any PV device, has played a distinctive role to their progress. To date, the mesoporous titanium dioxide (TiO2 )/compact TiO2 stack has been among the most used ESLs in state-of-the-art PSCs. However, this material requires high-temperature sintering and may induce hysteresis under operational conditions, raising concerns about its use toward commercialization. Recently, tin oxide (SnO2 ) has emerged as an attractive alternative ESL, thanks to its wide bandgap, high optical transmission, high carrier mobility, suitable band alignment with perovskites, and decent chemical stability. Additionally, its low-temperature processability enables compatibility with temperature-sensitive substrates, and thus flexible devices and tandem solar cells. Here, the notable developments of SnO2 as a perovskite-relevant ESL are reviewed with emphasis placed on the various fabrication methods and interfacial passivation routes toward champion solar cells with high stability. Further, a techno-economic analysis of SnO2 materials for large-scale deployment, together with a processing-toxicology assessment, is presented. Finally, a perspective on how SnO2 materials can be instrumental in successful large-scale module and perovskite-based tandem solar cell manufacturing is provided.

Enhanced optical path and electron diffusion length enable high-efficiency perovskite tandems.

Tandem solar cells involving metal-halide perovskite subcells offer routes to power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) that exceed the single-junction limit; however, reported PCE values for tandems have so far lain below their potential due to inefficient photon harvesting. Here we increase the optical path length in perovskite films by preserving smooth morphology while increasing thickness using a method we term boosted solvent extraction. Carrier collection in these films - as made - is limited by an insufficient electron diffusion length; however, we further find that adding a Lewis base reduces the trap density and enhances the electron-diffusion length to 2.3 µm, enabling a 19% PCE for 1.63 eV semi-transparent perovskite cells having an average near-infrared transmittance of 85%. The perovskite top cell combined with solution-processed colloidal quantum dot:organic hybrid bottom cell leads to a PCE of 24%; while coupling the perovskite cell with a silicon bottom cell yields a PCE of 28.2%.

Efficient tandem solar cells with solution-processed perovskite on textured crystalline silicon.

Stacking solar cells with decreasing band gaps to form tandems presents the possibility of overcoming the single-junction Shockley-Queisser limit in photovoltaics. The rapid development of solution-processed perovskites has brought perovskite single-junction efficiencies >20%. However, this process has yet to enable monolithic integration with industry-relevant textured crystalline silicon solar cells. We report tandems that combine solution-processed micrometer-thick perovskite top cells with fully textured silicon heterojunction bottom cells. To overcome the charge-collection challenges in micrometer-thick perovskites, we enhanced threefold the depletion width at the bases of silicon pyramids. Moreover, by anchoring a self-limiting passivant (1-butanethiol) on the perovskite surfaces, we enhanced the diffusion length and further suppressed phase segregation. These combined enhancements enabled an independently certified power conversion efficiency of 25.7% for perovskite-silicon tandem solar cells. These devices exhibited negligible performance loss after a 400-hour thermal stability test at 85°C and also after 400 hours under maximum power point tracking at 40°C.

Copula Based Classifier Fusion Under Statistical Dependence.

We consider the problem of fusing probability scores from a set of classifiers to estimate a final fused probability score. Our interest is in scenarios where the classifiers are statistically dependent. To that end, we propose a new classifier fusion approach that is data driven and founded on the statistical theory of copulas. Numerical results with both simulated and real data show that our copula based classifier fusion approach produces better probability scores than individual classifiers and outperforms existing probability score fusion approaches.