Insights into the Transmission, Host Range, Genomics, Vaccination, and Current Epidemiology of the Monkeypox Virus.

This review delves into the historical context, current epidemiological landscape, genomics, and pathobiology of monkeypox virus (MPXV). Furthermore, it elucidates the present vaccination status and strategies to curb the spread of monkeypox. Monkeypox, caused by the Orthopoxvirus known as MPXV, is a zoonotic ailment. MPXV can be transmitted from person to person through respiratory droplets during prolonged face-to-face interactions. While many cases of monkeypox are self-limiting, vulnerable groups such as young children, pregnant women, and immunocompromised individuals may experience severe manifestations. Diagnosis predominantly relies on clinical presentations, complemented by laboratory techniques like RT-PCR. Although treatment is often not required, severe cases necessitate antiviral medications like tecovirimat, cidofovir, and brincidofovir. Vaccination, particularly using the smallpox vaccine, has proven instrumental in outbreak control, exhibiting an efficacy of at least 85% against mpox as evidenced by data from Africa. Mitigating transmission requires measures like wearing surgical masks, adequately covering skin lesions, and avoiding handling wild animals.

COVID-19 and the brain: understanding the pathogenesis and consequences of neurological damage.

SARS-CoV-2 has been known remarkably since December 2019 as a strain of pathogenic coronavirus. Starting from the earlier stages of the COVID-19 pandemic until now, we have witnessed many cases of neurological damage caused by SARS-CoV-2. There are many studies and research conducted on COVID-19-positive-patients that have found brain-related abnormalities with clear neurological symptoms, ranging from simple headaches to life-threatening strokes. For treating neurological damage, knowing the actual pathway or mechanism of causing brain damage via SARS-CoV-2 is very important. For this reason, we have tried to explain the possible pathways of brain damage due to SARS-CoV-2 with mechanisms and illustrations. The SARS-CoV-2 virus enters the human body by binding to specific ACE2 receptors in the targeted cells, which are present in the glial cells and CNS neurons of the human brain. It is found that direct and indirect infections with SARS-CoV-2 in the brain result in endothelial cell death, which alters the BBB tight junctions. These probable alterations can be the reason for the excessive transmission and pathogenicity of SARS-CoV-2 in the human brain. In this precise review, we have tried to demonstrate the neurological symptoms in the case of COVID-19-positive-patients and the possible mechanisms of neurological damage, along with the treatment options for brain-related abnormalities. Knowing the transmission mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 in the human brain can assist us in generating novel treatments associated with neuroinflammation in other brain diseases.

Comprehensive analysis of antigenic variations and genomic properties of hepatitis B virus in clinical samples in the mid-north east region of Bangladesh.

This investigation delineates an exhaustive analysis of the clinical, immunological, and genomic landscapes of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection across a cohort of 22 verified patients. The demographic analysis unveiled a pronounced male bias (77.27%), with patient ages spanning 20 to 85 years and durations of illness ranging from 10 days to 4 years. Predominant clinical manifestations included fever, fatigue, anorexia, abdominal discomfort, and arthralgia, alongside observed co-morbidities such as chronic renal disorders and hepatocellular carcinoma. Antigenic profiling of the HBV envelope proteins elucidated significant heterogeneity among the infected subjects, particularly highlighted by discordances in the detection capabilities of small and large HBsAg assays, suggesting antigenic diversity. Quantitative assessment of viral loads unveiled a broad spectrum, accompanied by atypical HBeAg reactivity patterns, challenging the reliability of existing serological markers. Correlative studies between viral burden and antigenicity of the envelope proteins unearthed phenomena indicative of diagnostic evasion. Notably, samples demonstrating robust viral replication were paradoxically undetectable by the large HBsAg ELISA kit, advocating for more sophisticated diagnostic methodologies. Genotypic examination of three HBV isolates classified them as genotype D (D2), with phylogenetic alignment to strains from various global origins. Mutational profiling identified pivotal mutations within the basic core promoter and preS2/S1 regions, associated with an augmented risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. Further, mutations discerned in the small HBsAg and RT/overlap regions were recognized as contributors to vaccine and/or diagnostic escape mechanisms. In summation, this scholarly discourse elucidates the intricate interplay of clinical presentations, antigenic diversity, and genomic attributes in HBV infection, accentuating the imperative for ongoing investigative endeavors to refine diagnostic and therapeutic modalities.

COVID-19 in Bangladesh: Wave-centric assessments and mitigation measures for future pandemics.

The ongoing pandemic COVID-19 caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has wreaked havoc globally by affecting millions of lives. Although different countries found the implementation of emergency measures useful to combat the viral pandemic, many countries are still experiencing the resurgence of COVID-19 cases with new variants even after following strict containment guidelines. Country-specific lessons learned from the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic can be utilized in commencing a successful battle against the potential future outbreaks. In this article, we analyzed the overall scenario of the COVID-19 pandemic in Bangladesh from Alpha to Omicron variant and discussed the demographic, political, economic, social, and environmental influences on the mitigation strategies employed by the country to combat the pandemic. We also tried to explore the preparedness and precautionary measures taken by the responsible authorities, the choice of strategies implemented, and the effectiveness of the response initiated by the government and relevant agencies. Finally, we discussed the possible strategies that might help Bangladesh to combat future COVID-19 waves and other possible pandemics based on the experiences gathered from the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.

Corrigendum: Insights into the coinfections of human immunodeficiency virus-hepatitis B virus, human immunodeficiency virus-hepatitis C virus, and hepatitis B virus-hepatitis C virus: prevalence, risk factors, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.780887.].

A computational approach to design a polyvalent vaccine against human respiratory syncytial virus.

Human Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) is one of the leading causes of lower respiratory tract infections (LRTI), responsible for infecting people from all age groups-a majority of which comprises infants and children. Primarily, severe RSV infections are accountable for multitudes of deaths worldwide, predominantly of children, every year. Despite several efforts to develop a vaccine against RSV as a potential countermeasure, there has been no approved or licensed vaccine available yet, to control the RSV infection effectively. Therefore, through the utilization of immunoinformatics tools, a computational approach was taken in this study, to design a multi-epitope polyvalent vaccine against two major antigenic subtypes of RSV, RSV-A and RSV-B. Potential predictions of the T-cell and B-cell epitopes were followed by extensive tests of antigenicity, allergenicity, toxicity, conservancy, homology to human proteome, transmembrane topology, and cytokine-inducing ability. The peptide vaccine was modeled, refined, and validated. Molecular docking analysis with specific Toll-like receptors (TLRs) revealed excellent interactions with suitable global binding energies. Additionally, molecular dynamics (MD) simulation ensured the stability of the docking interactions between the vaccine and TLRs. Mechanistic approaches to imitate and predict the potential immune response generated by the administration of vaccines were determined through immune simulations. Subsequent mass production of the vaccine peptide was evaluated; however, there remains a necessity for further in vitro and in vivo experiments to validate its efficacy against RSV infections.

Computational designing of a novel subunit vaccine for human cytomegalovirus by employing the immunoinformatics framework.

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a widespread virus that can cause serious and irreversible neurological damage in newborns and even death in children who do not have the access to much-needed medications. While some vaccines and drugs are found to be effective against HCMV, their extended use has given rise to dose-limiting toxicities and the development of drug-resistant mutants among patients. Despite half a century's worth of research, the lack of a licensed HCMV vaccine heightens the need to develop newer antiviral therapies and vaccine candidates with improved effectiveness and reduced side effects. In this study, the immunoinformatics approach was utilized to design a potential polyvalent epitope-based vaccine effective against the four virulent strains of HCMV. The vaccine was constructed using seven CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes epitopes, nine CD4+ helper T lymphocyte epitopes, and twelve linear B-cell lymphocyte epitopes that were predicted to be antigenic, non-allergenic, non-toxic, fully conserved, and non-human homologous. Subsequently, molecular docking study, protein-protein interaction analysis, molecular dynamics simulation (including the root mean square fluctuation (RMSF) and root mean square deviation (RMSD)), and immune simulation study rendered promising results assuring the vaccine to be stable, safe, and effective. Finally, in silico cloning was conducted to develop an efficient mass production strategy of the vaccine. However, further in vitro and in vivo research studies on the proposed vaccine are required to confirm its safety and efficacy.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

SARS-CoV-2 and dengue virus co-infection: Epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment, and management.

SARS-CoV-2 and dengue virus co-infection cases have been on the rise in dengue-endemic regions as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) spreads over the world, posing a threat of a co-epidemic. The risk of comorbidity in co-infection cases is greater than that of a single viral infection, which is a cause of concern. Although the pathophysiologies of the two infections are different, the viruses have comparable effects within the body, resulting in identical clinical symptoms in the case of co-infection, which adds to the complexity. Overlapping symptoms and laboratory features make proper differentiation of the infections important. However, specific biomarkers provide precise results that can be utilised to diagnose and treat a co-infection, whether it is simply COVID-19, dengue, or a co-infection. Though their treatment is distinguished, it becomes more complicated in circumstances of co-infection. As a result, regardless of whatever infection the first symptom points to, confirmation diagnosis of both COVID-19 and dengue should be mandatory, particularly in dengue-endemic regions, to prevent health deterioration in individuals treated for a single infection. There is still a scarcity of concise literature on the epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis, therapy, and management of SARS-CoV-2 and dengue virus co-infection. The epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 and dengue virus co-infection, the mechanism of pathogenesis, and the potential impact on patients are summarised in this review. The possible diagnosis with biomarkers, treatment, and management of the SARS-CoV-2 and dengue viruses are also discussed. This review will shed light on the appropriate diagnosis, treatment, and management of the patients suffering from SARS-CoV-2 and dengue virus co-infection.