The parkin-like human homolog of Drosophila ariadne-1 (HHARI) can induce aggresome formation in mammalian cells and is immunologically detectable in Lewy bodies.

Loss of functional Parkin is responsible for the death of midbrain dopaminergic neurons in human autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism. Since no cells express functional Parkin, it is unclear why other neuronal and non-neuronal populations are not also endangered. One possible explanation is that other neurons express a redundant ubiquitin-protein ligase (E3) that is absent from dopaminergic neurons. In this study, we demonstrate that human homolog of Drosophila ariadne-1 (HHARI) is a candidate for such a redundant function. In in vitro assays, HHARI binds to many of the same proteins as parkin, including CDCrel-1, synphilin-1, and CASK. In cell culture studies, HHARI forms aggresomes that are indistinguishable from those formed by parkin in terms of morphology, subcellular localization, incorporation of ubiquitin-proteasome components, and dependence on microtubules. In addition, endogenous HHARI is found in human Lewy bodies in both Parkinson's disease and diffuse Lewy body disorder. Taken together, these data suggest that HHARI, and perhaps other Parkin-like E3 ligases, may serve redundant roles for parkin in different cell types.

Modelling the role of UCH-L1 on protein aggregation in age-related neurodegeneration.

Overexpression of the de-ubiquitinating enzyme UCH-L1 leads to inclusion formation in response to proteasome impairment. These inclusions contain components of the ubiquitin-proteasome system and α-synuclein confirming that the ubiquitin-proteasome system plays an important role in protein aggregation. The processes involved are very complex and so we have chosen to take a systems biology approach to examine the system whereby we combine mathematical modelling with experiments in an iterative process. The experiments show that cells are very heterogeneous with respect to inclusion formation and so we use stochastic simulation. The model shows that the variability is partly due to stochastic effects but also depends on protein expression levels of UCH-L1 within cells. The model also indicates that the aggregation process can start even before any proteasome inhibition is present, but that proteasome inhibition greatly accelerates aggregation progression. This leads to less efficient protein degradation and hence more aggregation suggesting that there is a vicious cycle. However, proteasome inhibition may not necessarily be the initiating event. Our combined modelling and experimental approach show that stochastic effects play an important role in the aggregation process and could explain the variability in the age of disease onset. Furthermore, our model provides a valuable tool, as it can be easily modified and extended to incorporate new experimental data, test hypotheses and make testable predictions.

Ring finger ubiquitin protein ligases and their implication to the pathogenesis of human diseases.

The ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) plays a fundamental role in maintaining the correct balance of protein levels inside all living cells. Degradation of proteins by this pathway is essential for most cellular processes including cell signalling, DNA repair, apoptosis and gene transcription. Any disruption to the system is likely to have severe consequences which may lead to disorders including neurodegeneration and cancer. Ubiquitin protein ligases are a group of UPS proteins of particular importance because these proteins determine targeting specificity via recognition of a 'target' protein and its' subsequent 'tagging' with ubiquitin. The 26S proteasome recognises these mutli-ubiquitylated proteins, allowing the correct protein to be degraded at the correct time and place within each cell. Several types of ubiquitin protein ligase have now been identified, however, the largest group by far are those proteins containing a 'RING' motif. In this review, examples will be given whereby abnormal protein ubiquitylation due to absence or inefficiency of a RING protein ligase is proposed to be a key regulator of the disease process. Ways in which we may be able to reverse these effects or manipulate these proteins to restore function will be discussed.

Proteomic analysis of increased Parkin expression and its interactants provides evidence for a role in modulation of mitochondrial function.

Parkin is an ubiquitin-protein ligase (E3), mutations of which cause juvenile onset - autosomal recessive Parkinson's disease, and result in reduced enzymic activity. In contrast, increased levels are protective against mitochondrial dysfunction and neurodegeneration, the mechanism of which is largely unknown. In this study, 2-DE and MS proteomic techniques were utilised to investigate the effects of increased Parkin levels on protein expression in whole cell lysates using in an inducible Parkin expression system in HEK293 cells, and also to isolate potential interactants of Parkin using tandem affinity purification and MS. Nine proteins were significantly differentially expressed (+/-2-fold change; p<0.05) using 2-DE analysis. MS revealed the identity of these proteins to be ACAT2, HNRNPK, HSPD1, PGK1, PRDX6, VCL, VIM, TPI1, and IMPDH2. The first seven of these were reduced in expression. Western blot analysis confirmed the reduction in one of these proteins (HNRNPK), and that its levels were dependent on 26S proteasomal activity. Tandem affinity purification/MS revealed 14 potential interactants of Parkin; CKB, DBT, HSPD1, HSPA9, LRPPRC, NDUFS2, PRDX6, SLC25A5, TPI1, UCHL1, UQCRC1, VCL, YWHAZ, YWHAE. Nine of these are directly involved in mitochondrial energy metabolism and glycolysis; four were also identified in the 2-DE study (HSP60, PRDX6, TPI1, and VCL). This study provides further evidence for a role for Parkin in regulating mitochondrial activity within cells.

UbcH7 interacts with the glucocorticoid receptor and mediates receptor autoregulation.

Unlike other nuclear receptors, transactivation by the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) is increased by the inhibition of the ubiquitin/proteasome pathway. Here, we demonstrate that the ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme (E2), UbcH7, physically interacts with the GR and, when overexpressed, reduces the ability of the receptor to upregulate gene expression. Chemical inhibition of the 26S proteasome abolished the downregulation effect of overexpressed UbcH7, suggesting a role for the 26S proteasome, and GR protein stability in mediating the UbcH7 effect. Furthermore, a UbcH7 dominant negative mutant (C89S), unable to transfer ubiquitin, failed to repress GR transactivation. Indeed, overexpression of the mutant UbcH7 was sufficient to augment GR transactivation to levels achieved using the proteasome inhibitor MG132, but there was no further induction when MG132 and the UbcH7 mutant were used together. Expression of the dominant negative UbcH7 abolished ligand-dependent downregulation of GR protein, suggesting that the UbcH7 effect was mediated by regulation of GR protein concentration. Taken together, these data show that UbcH7 is a key regulator of GR turnover and glucocorticoid sensitivity.

E3 ubiquitin ligases.

The selectivity of the ubiquitin-26 S proteasome system (UPS) for a particular substrate protein relies on the interaction between a ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme (E2, of which a cell contains relatively few) and a ubiquitin-protein ligase (E3, of which there are possibly hundreds). Post-translational modifications of the protein substrate, such as phosphorylation or hydroxylation, are often required prior to its selection. In this way, the precise spatio-temporal targeting and degradation of a given substrate can be achieved. The E3s are a large, diverse group of proteins, characterized by one of several defining motifs. These include a HECT (homologous to E6-associated protein C-terminus), RING (really interesting new gene) or U-box (a modified RING motif without the full complement of Zn2+-binding ligands) domain. Whereas HECT E3s have a direct role in catalysis during ubiquitination, RING and U-box E3s facilitate protein ubiquitination. These latter two E3 types act as adaptor-like molecules. They bring an E2 and a substrate into sufficiently close proximity to promote the substrate's ubiquitination. Although many RING-type E3s, such as MDM2 (murine double minute clone 2 oncoprotein) and c-Cbl, can apparently act alone, others are found as components of much larger multi-protein complexes, such as the anaphase-promoting complex. Taken together, these multifaceted properties and interactions enable E3s to provide a powerful, and specific, mechanism for protein clearance within all cells of eukaryotic organisms. The importance of E3s is highlighted by the number of normal cellular processes they regulate, and the number of diseases associated with their loss of function or inappropriate targeting.

The aggravating role of the ubiquitin-proteasome system in neurodegeneration.

Association of protein inclusions or aggregates within brain tissues of patients with neurodegenerative disorders has been widely reported. These inclusions are commonly characterised both by the presence of ubiquitylated proteins and the sequestration of components of the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS). Such observations have led to the proposition that the UPS has a direct role in their formation. Indeed, the presence of ubiquitylated proteins and UPS components in inclusions may reflect unsuccessful attempts by the UPS to remove aggregating proteins. Whether the physical presence of inclusions causes cell death or, conversely, whether they are non-toxic and their presence reflects a cellular protective mechanism remains highly controversial.

UCH-L1 aggresome formation in response to proteasome impairment indicates a role in inclusion formation in Parkinson's disease.

Aggresomes are associated with many neurodegenerative disorders, including Parkinson's disease, and polyglutamine disorders such as Huntington's disease. These inclusions commonly contain ubiquitylated proteins. The stage at which these proteins are ubiquitylated remains unclear. A malfunction of the ubiquitin/proteasome system (UPS) may be associated with their formation. Conversely, it may reflect an unsuccessful attempt by the cell to remove them. Previously, we demonstrated that overexpression of Parkin, a ubiquitin-protein ligase associated with autosomal recessive juvenile Parkinsonism, generates aggresome-like inclusions in UPS compromised cells. Mutations in the de-ubiquitylating enzyme, UCH-L1, cause a rare form of Parkinsonism. We now demonstrate that overexpression of UCH-L1 also forms ribbon-like aggresomes in response to proteasomal inhibition. Disease-associated mutations, which affect enzymatic activities, significantly increased the number of inclusions. UCH-L1 aggresomes co-localized with ubiquitylated proteins, HSP70, gamma-tubulin and, to a lesser extent, the 20S proteasome and the chaperone BiP. Similar to Parkin inclusions, we found UCH-L1 aggresomes to be surrounded by a tubulin rather than a vimentin cage-like structure. Furthermore, UCH-L1 aggregates with Parkin and alpha-synuclein in some, but not all inclusions, suggesting the heterogeneous nature of these inclusion bodies. This study provides additional evidence that aggregation-prone proteins are likely to recruit UPS components in an attempt to clear proteins from failing proteasomes. Furthermore, UCH-L1 accumulation is likely to play a pathological role in inclusion formation in Parkinson's disease.

Ubiquitin-protein ligases--novel therapeutic targets?

Intracellular protein degradation is a tightly regulated process that in many cases is controlled by protein ubiquitylation. The ubiquitin pathway is a major route by which cells not only remove normal proteins at the appropriate time but also abnormally folded normal or mutant, cytoplasmic and membrane, proteins. This has led to a major impetus to identify constituents of the pathway. The key components that regulate substrate ubiquitylation are the ubiquitin-protein ligases. Ligases come in many forms, from single proteins to very large multiprotein complexes. Specificity of targeting can be modulated by the requirement for post-translational modifications such as phosphorylation, hydroxylation or oxidation of the substrate and, in some cases, the ligase itself. The requirement for substrate modification prior to ubiquitylation allows the same ligase to target different substrates within the same cell at different times. Abnormal intracellular protein processing is a common feature of many human diseases including neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. It may not represent the causative factor that initiates the disease process but may be a downstream regulator of the toxic effect. These abnormalities often arise from the loss of a key protein-protein interaction. As a consequence, mutated proteins can have very different half-lives from their normal counterparts. This can affect the levels of their activity and/or lead to the formation of protein aggregates (inclusion bodies/aggresomes). In this review, we aim to highlight examples of diseases where abnormal protein ubiquitylation is proposed to be a key regulator of the disease process. The recent success of the proteasome inhibitor Bortezomib (PS-341) for treatment of relapsed, refractory myeloma suggests that the modulation of individual ubiquitin-protein ligase activities with synthetic agents may represent a novel approach that has enormous potential for the treatment of a wide range of diseases.

The role of ubiquitin-protein ligases in neurodegenerative disease.

Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease are the most common neurodegenerative conditions associated with the ageing process. The pathology of these and other neurodegenerative disorders, including polyglutamine diseases, is characterised by the presence of inclusion bodies in brain tissue of affected patients. In general, these inclusion bodies consist of insoluble, unfolded proteins that are commonly tagged with the small protein, ubiquitin. Covalent tagging of proteins with chains of ubiquitin generally targets them for degradation. Indeed, the ubiquitin/proteasome system (UPS) is the major route through which intracellular proteolysis is regulated. This strongly implicates the UPS in these disease-associated inclusions, either due to malfunction (of specific UPS components) or overload of the system (due to aggregation of unfolded/mutant proteins), resulting in subsequent cellular toxicity. Protein targeting for degradation is a highly regulated process. It relies on transfer of ubiquitin molecules to the target protein via an enzyme cascade and specific recognition of a substrate protein by ubiquitin-protein ligases (E3s). Recent advances in our knowledge gained from the Human Genome Mapping Project have revealed the presence of potentially hundreds of E3s within the human genome. The discovery that parkin, mutations in which are found in at least 50% of patients with autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism, is an E3 further highlights the importance of the UPS in neurological disease. To date, parkin is the only E3 confirmed to have a direct causal role in neurodegenerative disorders. However, a number of other (putative) E3s have now been identified that may cause disease directly or interact with neurological disease-associated proteins. Many of these are either lost or mutated in a given disease or fail to process disease-associated mutant proteins correctly. In this review, we will discuss the role(s) of E3s in neurodegenerative disorders.

Human homologue of ariadne promotes the ubiquitylation of translation initiation factor 4E homologous protein, 4EHP.

Human homologue of Drosophila ariadne (HHARI) is a RING-IBR-RING domain protein identified through its ability to bind the human ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme, UbcH7. We now demonstrate that HHARI also interacts with the eukaryotic mRNA cap binding protein, translation initiation factor 4E homologous protein (4EHP), via the N-terminal RING1 finger of HHARI. HHARI, 4EHP and UbcH7 do not form a stable heterotrimeric complex as 4EHP cannot immunoprecipitate UbcH7 even in the presence of HHARI. Overexpression of 4EHP and HHARI in mammalian cells leads to polyubiquitylation of 4EHP. By contrast, HHARI does not promote its own autoubiquitylation. Thus, by promoting the ubiquitin-mediated degradation of 4EHP, HHARI may have a role in both protein degradation and protein translation.

Inhibition of proteasomal activity causes inclusion formation in neuronal and non-neuronal cells overexpressing Parkin.

Association between protein inclusions and neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases, and polyglutamine disorders, has been widely documented. Although ubiquitin is conjugated to many of these aggregated proteins, the 26S proteasome does not efficiently degrade them. Mutations in the ubiquitin-protein ligase Parkin are associated with autosomal recessive juvenile Parkinsonism. Although Parkin-positive inclusions are not detected in brains of autosomal recessive juvenile Parkinsonism patients, Parkin is found in Lewy bodies in sporadic disease. This suggests that loss of Parkin ligase activity via mutation, or sequestration to Lewy bodies, is a contributory factor to sporadic disease onset. We now demonstrate that decreased proteasomal activity causes formation of large, noncytotoxic inclusions within the cytoplasm of both neuronal and nonneuronal cells overexpressing Parkin. This is not a general phenomenon as there is an absence of similar inclusions when HHARI, a structural homolog of Parkin, is overexpressed. The inclusions colocalize with ubiquitin and with proteasomes. Furthermore, Parkin inclusions colocalize with gamma-tubulin, acetylated alpha-tubulin, and cause redistribution of vimentin, suggesting aggresome-like properties. Our data imply that lower proteasomal activity, previously observed in brain tissue of Parkinson's disease patients, leads to Parkin accumulation and a concomitant reduction in ligase activity, thereby promoting Lewy body formation.