Standardized ileal digestibility of amino acids differs among sources of bakery meal when fed to growing pigs.

A multistate experiment involving universities in IL, IN, KY, and MN was conducted as a part of the research efforts by the North-Central Coordinating Committee-42 on swine nutrition. The null hypothesis that there are no differences in the standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acids (AA) among different sources of bakery meal was tested. Eleven sources of bakery meal were procured from swine-producing states in the United States and each source was included in one diet as the sole source of AA. A N-free diet was prepared as well. Diets were prepared in one batch and divided into four sub-batches that were subsequently distributed to the four participating universities. At each university, diets were fed to 12 pigs that had a T- cannula installed in the distal ileum. Pigs were allotted to incomplete Latin square designs with 12 pigs and 4, 5, or 6 periods for a total of 21 replicate pigs per diet. Each period lasted 7 d with ileal digesta being collected from the cannulas on days 6 and 7. Samples were analyzed for AA and the SID of each AA was calculated. Results indicated that there were differences (P < 0.001) in the SID of all AA except Pro among the 11 sources of bakery meal. The differences in SID of AA observed in this experiment were greater than what is usually observed among sources of the same ingredient, indicating that there is more variability among sources of bakery meal than among different sources of other ingredients. This is likely a consequence of different raw materials being used in the production of different sources of bakery meal. Regardless of source of bakery meal, the AA with the least SID was Lys indicating that some of the raw materials in the product streams used to generate the bakery meals may have been overheated. Additionally, the Lys:crude protein ratio in each source of bakery meal was not a good predictor of the SID of Lys, which likely reflects the different raw materials being included in the different meals. In conclusion, the SID of AA varies among different sources of bakery meal and the SID of Lys is less than the SID of all other indispensable AA.

Eleven sources of bakery meal were used in a regional experiment to determine digestibility of amino acids. Diets containing each source of bakery meal were prepared at one university and distributed to three other universities. Diets were fed to pigs that had a cannula installed in the distal ileum and ileal digesta were collected from pigs for 2 d following 5 d of adaptation. Results indicated that there is considerable variation in the digestibility of all amino acids among sources of bakery meal, which is likely a reflection of differences in raw material use among different producers of bakery meal. Results also demonstrated that the digestibility of Lys is less than the digestibility of all other amino acids, indicating that some of the raw materials used in the production of bakery meal may have been heat damaged. It may, therefore, be necessary to add additional Lys to diets containing bakery meal.

Behavioral and stress responses to feeding time in pregnant sows under limit-fed regime.

We investigated the effect of feeding time on behavior and stress responses in pregnant sows under isocaloric conditions. Twenty-four sows were balanced for parity and randomly assigned to 1 of 3 feeding times. Corn-soybean meal-based diet was fed once at: 0730 (Control, T1), 1130 (T2), and 1530 hours (T3). On average, sows received 7,062 kcal ME/d from 2.20 kg of diet formulated to contain SID Lys/ME of 1.71 g/Mcal. The study was conducted for 28 d (21 d acclimation to the feeding regime and 7 d data collection). Saliva samples were collected every 2 hr for 12 hr in stalls on day 52 of pregnancy. Behavior data were collected 24 hr for 7 d from day 53 of gestating by affixing a remote insights ear tag to each sow. Each sow had 120,960 data points categorized into: "Active," "Feed," or "Dormant". Due to housing constraint, all sows were housed in individual stalls in the same barn presenting a potential limitation of the study. Data were analyzed using PROC MIXED and GLIMMIX procedures of SAS 9.4 for cortisol and behavior data, respectively. Sow was the experimental unit. The area under the curve (AUC) is quantitative evaluation of response as threshold varies over all possible values. A 12-hr cortisol total AUC for sows fed once daily at 1130 hours was reduced relative to sow group fed at 1530 hours (P = 0.046) but similar compared with the control sows (P = 0. 323). The control sows (0730 hours) had reduced total (P < 0.001) and feeding (P = 0.001) activity AUCs relative to sows on 1130 hours but did not differ compared with sows on 1530 hours feeding schedules (P > 0.100). Sows on 1130 hours feeding schedule had greater feed anticipatory activity, 24-hr total activity count, total (P < 0.001) and feeding (P < 0.001) activity AUC compared with sows fed daily at 1530 hours. In conclusion, feeding pregnant sows earlier in the morning (0730 hours) appears to minimize sows' behavior but similar cortisol response. Sows on 1130 hours feeding schedule had greater activities but reduced cortisol concentration, suggesting that elevated sow activity might not necessarily indicate activation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.

Behavioral and cortisol responses to feeding frequency in pregnant sows under isocaloric intake.

The study focused on behavioral and cortisol responses to feeding frequency in pregnant sows under isocaloric intake. Twenty-four sows [(Landrace × Yorkshire); BW 216.70 ± 3.98 kg; parity 3.04 ± 0.53] were balanced for parity and randomly assigned to 1 of 3 feeding frequency regimes. Sows were fed corn-soybean meal-based diet 1× [0730 (Control), T1], 2× [half ration at 0730 and 1530 hours, T2], or 3× [one-third portion at 0730, 1130, and 1530 hours, T3] from days 30 to 60 of gestation. Sows received 7055 kcal ME/d during gestation from 2.21 kg of diet formulated to contain SID Lys/ME of 1.71 g/Mcal. Saliva samples were collected every 2 hr from 0630 to 1830 hours on day 52 and assayed for cortisol using ELISA procedure. Behavior data were collected for 7 d from day 53 of gestation by affixing a remote insights ear tag to each sow. Each sow had 120,960 data points categorized into: "Active", "Feed," or "Dormant". Because of housing constraint, all sows were housed in individual stalls in the same room presenting a potential limitation of the study. The data were analyzed using PROC MIXED and GLIMMIX procedures of SAS 9.4 for cortisol and behavior count data, respectively. Sow was the experimental unit. The area under the curve (AUC) is quantitative evaluation of response as threshold varies over all possible values. The T2 sows had reduced 12-hr cortisol AUC compared with control sows (P = 0.024) and T3 sows (P = 0.004), respectively. The T2 sows had lower 3 hr (P = 0.039) and 5 hr (P = 0.015) postfeeding cortisol AUC compared with control sows. Feed anticipatory activity (FAA), 24-hr total activity, and feeding activities (eating and/or sham chewing) were reduced for T2 sows relative to the control and T3 sows (P < 0.01). Consequently, T2 sows had lower 24-hr total activity (P < 0.001) and feeding activities (P < 0.001) AUC compared with both the control and T3 sows, respectively. The T3 sows had greater FAA (P < 0.001) and 24-hr total activity AUC (P = 0.010) compared with control sows. Our data although inconclusive due to small sample size, twice daily feeding appears to be the threshold that reduces sows' total activity AUC, feeding activity AUC, and activation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, reduced hunger, and exhibit potential to improve sow welfare in relation to once and thrice daily feeding regimes under isocaloric intake per kilogram live metabolic weight.

Effect of feeding frequency and sow parity based on isocaloric intake during gestation on sow performance.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of feeding frequency and sow parity based on same rate of maintenance energy intake during gestation on sow performance. One hundred and seventy-seven sows [Topigs Norsvin 70, Landrace × Large White, Topigs Norsvin USA, Burnsville, MN; parity 3.80 ± 0.16; initial BW = 211.34 ± 3.37 kg; backfat (BF) 13.57 ± 0.54 mm] were blocked by parity, balanced for BW, and randomly assigned to 1 of 3 treatments in a randomized complete block design. Treatments included sows fed corn-soybean meal-based diet 1× daily at 0730 h (control, T1), 2× daily [half ration at 0730 and 1530 h (T2)], or 3× daily [a third portion at 0730, 1130, and 1530 h (T3)], with daily feed quantity kept at 1.25 × maintenance energy intake [100 × (BW)0.75] kcal ME/d. Treatments were imposed from day 30 of gestation. Sows received on average 6,921, 7,129, and 7,399 kcal ME/d from days 30 to 60, days 61 to 90, days 91 to 109 of gestation, respectively. Feeding frequency during gestation had no effect on lactation ADFI (P > 0.10). Sows fed 3× daily during gestation had improved lactation G:F (P = 0.040) compared with sows fed 2× but similar to control sows (P = 0.338). Treatment did not alter BW or BW variations during gestation, lactation, or from days 30 to wean (P > 0.10). Sows fed 2× daily had tendency to gain BF from day 30 to day 109 of gestation (P = 0.053) but tended to lose BF during lactation (P = 0.091) relative to the control sows. Feeding frequency (2× and 3× daily) tended to increase the number of piglets weaned by 0.40 (P = 0.056) and 0.53 (P = 0.098) piglets, respectively, compared with control sows. Sows fed 2× daily during gestation had reduced number of stillborn relative to control sows (P = 0.035). From day 30 to wean, gilts had propensity to lose BF relative to P1+ (P = 0.094), but lost BF compared with P3+ and P6+ sows (P = 0.003). Parity P6+ sows had highest percentage of both 72 h and preweaning piglet mortality than P0, P1+, and P3+ sows (P < 0.05). In conclusion, parity (P6+) had greater lactation BW gain but higher mortalities relative to lower parity sows. Sows fed 2× daily tended to gain BF from days 30 to 109 of gestation and had reduced number of stillborn relative to control sows. It appears that increasing gestation sow feeding frequency from 1× daily to 2× and 3× daily may reduce the number of stillborn and increase litter size at weaning although most of the reproductive traits were not affected.

Effects of time of feeding during gestation on sow's performance1.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of different feeding time regimes given similar energy intake per kilogram live BW0.75 during gestation on sow's performance. One hundred and seventy-four sows [Topigs TN 70 (Landrace × Large White, Topigs USA); parity 3.81 ± 0.16; initial BW = 211.57 ± 3.34 kg; backfat (BF) 13.70 ± 0.42 mm] were blocked by parity, farrowing date, balanced for BW and randomly assigned to 1 of 3 treatments in a randomized complete block design. Treatments included sows fed corn-soybean meal-based diet once at [0730 (control, T1), 1130 (T2), or 1530 h (T3)], with daily feed quantity kept at 1.25× maintenance energy intake [100 × (BW)0.75] kcal ME/d. Sows received 6,758, 7,434, and 8,110 kcal ME/d from days 30 to 60, days 61 to 90, days 91 to 109 of gestation, respectively. The gestation diet was formulated to contain 3,379 kcal of ME/kg, 0.70% Ca, 0.61% total P, 0.58% SID Lys, 0.26% SID Met, 0.45% SID Thr, 0.12% SID Trp, and 0.48% SID Met+Cys. Body weight and BF were recorded on days 30, 60, 90, and 109 of gestation, 24 h after farrowing and at weaning. Results showed that feeding times evaluated did not alter BW changes from day 30 to day 109 of gestation (P = 0.81) or from day 30 to weaning (P = 0.87). Similarly, feeding sows daily at 1130 h did not influence BF gains and sow reproductive performance relative to the control sows (P > 0.10). Sows fed once daily at 1530 h gained more BF compared with the control (3.69 ± 0.47 vs. 2.12 ± 0.50 mm, P = 0.04) from day 30 to day 109 of gestation. From day 30 of gestation to weaning, treatments did not influence BF gain (P = 0.24). Feeding sows daily meal at 1530 h had propensity to increase (P = 0.09) the number of piglets weaned by 0.54 piglets compared with the control sows. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that feeding pregnant sows at 1530 h altered energy and nutrient metabolism improving their BF gain and exhibited a potential to increase the number of weaned piglets compared with conventional feeding regime.

Minimal floor space allowance for gestating sows kept in pens with electronic sow feeders on fully slatted floors.

A study was conducted to evaluate the minimal floor space allowance for gestating sows group-housed in pens with electronic sow feeders (ESF). Five floor space allowances were each tested in 4 pens: 1.5 m2, 1.7 m2, 1.9 m2, 2.1 m2 per sow, and 1.5 m2 per sow with more space (2.1 m2 per sow) during the first week of mixing (2.1/1.5 m2). The floor space allowances were achieved by adjusting pen size (from 80 to 88 m2) and group size (42, 46, and 51 sows per pen). Pregnant sows (n = 928, Large White × Landrace, parity = 1 to 9) were moved to ESF pens at about 5 wk of gestation and remained in their pens until about day 109 of gestation. Sows farrowed in individual stalls and weaned their litters at about 19 d after farrowing. Sows that were rebred within 1 wk after weaning were considered to have completed the study. Performance, skin lesions, and incidence of lameness in ESF pens were monitored for all sows. Data were analyzed using the Frequency, Glimmix, and Mixed procedures of the SAS software. Floor space allowance did not affect (P = 0.18 or greater) body weight, backfat depth, or condition score in ESF pens or during the lactation period. No differences (P = 0.23 or greater) were detected in farrowing rates (95, 92, 94, 94, and 95% for 1.5, 1.7, 1.9, 2.1, and 1.5/2.1 m2, respectively), completion rates (83, 79, 80, 86, and 86%), live litter size farrowed (12.5, 12.7, 12.2, 12.3, and 12.5 pigs per litter, SE = 0.24), litter size weaned (10.4, 10.5, 10.2, 10.2, and 10.6 pigs per litter, SE = 0.22), litter weight farrowed, litter weight weaned, or wean-to-estrus interval among treatment groups. Skin lesion scores for the body and for the vulva 2 d after mixing into ESF pens and when moved from ESF pens to farrowing quarters were similar across treatment groups (P = 0.54 or greater). Incidence of lameness 2 d after mixing was higher (χ2 = 21.1, df = 4; P = 0.01) for sows allowed 2.1/1.5 m2 (9.5%) and 2.1 m2 (4.2%) than sows allowed 1.9 m2 (1.8%), 1.7 m2 (2.9%), and 1.5 m2 (1.5%), which may be associated with fighting to establish dominance hierarchy during mixing in pens with larger open areas. No difference was observed in incidence of lameness when moved from ESF pens to farrowing quarters among treatment groups. These results suggest that the minimal floor space allowance of 1.5 m2 appears to be acceptable for maintaining reproductive performance and welfare of gestating sows group-housed under conditions of the current study.

Effects of different gestation housing types on reproductive performance of sows.

This study evaluated the effects of different gestation housing types on reproductive performance of sows. A total of 60 sows (218 ± 24 kg body weight) with mixed parity were used. During gestation, 28 sows were housed in groups with electronic sow feeders (space allowance = 1.26 m2 /sow) and 32 sows were housed in individual stalls (space allowance = 1.20 m2 /sow). Sows from both housing types were moved to farrowing crates on day 109 of gestation and stayed until weaning (18 days post-farrowing). Typical corn-soybean meal diets were provided to sows during gestation and lactation. Measurements were reproductive performance of sows at farrowing as well as performance of sows and their litter during lactation. Similar total numbers of piglets born at farrowing were observed for sows gestated in both housing types. However, group-housed gestation sows had more mummies (0.321 vs. 0.064; P < 0.05) and stillbirths (0.893 vs. 0.469; P = 0.073) at farrowing than individual-housed gestation sows. Consequently, individual-housing type had higher percentage of piglets born alive (95.5 vs. 90.4%; P < 0.05) than the group-housing type. Therefore, improved reproductive performance of sows from individual gestating housing was confirmed in this study.

Productive performance of sows fed increasing levels of distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) across parities / Comportamiento productivo de cerdas alimentadas con niveles crecientes de granos secos de destilería con solubles (DDGS) durante varios partos / Desempenho produtivo de porcas alimentadas com níveis crescentes de grãos secos de destilaria com solúveis (DDGS) durante vários partos

Background: of distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) in lactation diets may contribute to productive performance of lactating sows of different parities. Objective: the objective of this study was to determine the effects of feeding diets containing different levels of DDGS on productive performance of lactating sows of different parities. Methods: a total of 245 sows were divided into 3 parity groups of 1 to 2, 3 to 5, and over 5 parities. Within each parity group, sows were allotted to 1 of 4 dietary treatments that were prepared by inclusion of 0, 10, 20, and 30% DDGS in lactation diets. Diets were fed to sows during the whole lactation period. Results: average piglet weaning weight tended (quadratic, p<0.10) to increase by feeding diets containing increasing levels of DDGS to lactating sows of 3 to 5 and over 5 parities. Likewise, increasing levels of DDGS in diets tended (quadratic, p<0.10) to increase average piglet weight gain in all sow parity groups. The improvement of average piglet weaning weight and average piglet weight gain was the greatest when sows of 3 to 5 parities were fed diets containing 20% DDGS or when sows of over 5 parities were fed diets containing 10% DDGS compared with other dietary treatments. Feeding diets containing different levels of DDGS had no negative effects on other productive performance of lactating sows, regardless of parity. Conclusions: DDGS can be included up to 30% in diets fed to lactating sows of different parities.

Antecedentes: la inclusión de granos secos de destilería con solubles (DDGS) en las dietas de lactancia puede contribuir al desempeño productivo entre cerdas lactantes de diferentes partos. Objetivo: determinar los efectos de varios niveles dietarios de DDGS en el comportamiento productivo de cerdas lactantes de diferentes partos. Métodos: un total de 245 cerdas fueron divididas en 3 grupos según el número de partos: de 1 a 2, 3 a 5, y más de 5 partos. Dentro de cada grupo de partos, las cerdas se asignaron a 1 de 4 tratamientos dietarios que incluían 0, 10, 20, o 30 % de DDGS en la dieta de lactancia. Las dietas fueron administradas a las cerdas durante todo el período de lactancia. Resultados: el peso al destete de los lechones tendió (cuadrática, p<0,10) a aumentar con el consumo creciente de DDGS por cerdas lactantes de 3 a 5 o de más de 5 partos. Del mismo modo, los niveles crecientes de DDGS tendieron (cuadrática, p<0,10) a aumentar la ganancia media de peso de los lechones en todos los partos. La mejora del peso promedio al destete y ganancia de peso de los lechones fue mayor para las cerdas de 3 a 5 partos que consumieron 20 % de DDGS, o para cerdas de más de 5 partos consumiendo 10 % de DDGS. Las dietas con diferentes niveles de DDGS no tuvieron efectos negativos sobre otros parámetros productivos de las cerdas lactantes, independientemente de la paridad. Conclusiones: los DDGS se pueden incluir hasta un 30% en las dietas de cerdas lactantes de diferente orden de parto.

Antecedentes: a inclusão de grãos secos de destilaria com solúveis (DDGS) em dietas de amamentação pode contribuir para o desempenho produtivo de porcas lactantes com diferentes partos. Objetivo: determinar os efeitos de diferentes níveis dietéticos de DDGS no desempenho produtivo de porcas em lactação com diferente número de partos. Métodos: um total de 245 fêmeas foram divididas em três grupos segundo seu número de partos: 1-2, 3-5, e mais de 5 partos. Dentro de cada grupo de parição, as porcas foram designadas para um de quatro tratamentos de diferentes dietas que forneciam 0, 10, 20, ou 30% de DDGS na dieta de amamentação. As dietas foram fornecidas às porcas durante o período de lactação. Resultados: o peso ao desmame dos leitões tendeu (quadrática, p<0,10) a incrementar com o aumento do consumo de DDGS das porcas lactantes dos grupos 3-5 e mais de 5 partos. Do mesmo jeito, os níveis crescentes de DDGS (quadrática, p<0,10) aumentaram o ganho de peso médio dos leitões das porcas dos três grupos avaliados. A melhora do peso médio a desmama e o ganho de peso médio dos leitões foi maior nas porcas de 3-5 partos que consumiram 20% de DDGS e nas porcas de mais de 5 partos que consumiram 10% de DDGS. As dietas com diferentes níveis de DDGS não tiveram efeitos negativos sobre os outros parâmetros produtivos das porcas em lactação, independentemente do número de partos. Conclusões: os DDGS se podem incluir nas dietas das porcas com diferentes números de partos até num 30%.

Colostral antibody-mediated and cell-mediated immunity contributes to innate and antigen-specific immunity in piglets.

Immunoglobulins and immune cells are critical components of colostral immunity; however, their transfer to and function in the neonate, especially maternal lymphocytes, is unclear. Cell-mediated and antibody-mediated immunity in sow blood and colostrum and piglet blood before (PS) and after (AS) suckling were assessed to investigate transfer and function of maternal immunity in the piglet. CD4, CD8, and γδ lymphocytes were found in sow blood and colostrum and piglet blood PS and AS; each had a unique T lymphocyte profile. Immunoglobulins were detected in sow blood, colostrum, and in piglet blood AS; the immunoglobulin profile of piglet serum AS mimicked that of sow serum. These results suggest selectivity in lymphocyte concentration into colostrum and subsequent lymphocyte transfer into the neonate, but that immunoglobulin transfer is unimpeded. Assessment of colostral natural killer activity and antigen-specific proliferation revealed that colostral cells are capable of influencing the innate and specific immune response of neonatal pigs.

Effect of group size and structure on the welfare and performance of pregnant sows in pens with electronic sow feeders.

Pregnant sows were housed in dynamic, twice-mixed, and static groups of different sizes in pens with electronic sow feeders (ESFs) to study the effect of group size and structure on sow welfare and performance. The total injury score (TIS) was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the dynamic group than in the other groups in general and 2 wk after mixing. The salivary cortisol concentrations were similar in the 3 groups. The frequency of queuing was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the twice-mixed group and the frequency of nonagonistic social interactions significantly lower (P < 0.05) in the dynamic group. The total number of aggressive acts was positively and significantly correlated (P < 0.05) with the frequency and duration of queuing in all the groups. Farrowing performance and longevity did not differ between the groups. The higher TIS and lower number of nonagonistic social interactions indicated that welfare was compromised in the dynamic group as compared with the other groups.

Evaluation of well-being, productivity, and longevity of pregnant sows housed in groups in pens with an electronic sow feeder or separately in gestation stalls.

OBJECTIVE: To compare well-being, performance, and longevity of gestating sows housed in stalls or in pens with an electronic sow feeder (ESF). ANIMALS: 382 pregnant sows of parities 1 through 6. PROCEDURE: Sows were housed in separate stalls (n = 176) or group pens (206) with an ESF. Well-being of sows was assessed at various time points in terms of injuries, salivary cortisol concentration, and behavior in a novel arena or to a novel object. Farrowing performance and longevity of sows were also assessed. RESULTS: Total injury scores (TIS) of sows in pens were significantly higher at initial introduction and mixing. In stall-housed sows, TIS was significantly higher during late gestation. The TIS and cortisol concentration were significantly lower in stall-housed sows, compared with values for sows in pens. As parity increased, the likelihood of higher median TIS decreased significantly in pen-housed sows and increased significantly in stall-housed sows. The TIS of sows in pens was negatively correlated with body weight and backfat thickness, whereas these correlations were positive in stall-housed sows. Farrowing performance and results for novel arena or objects did not differ. Proportion of sows removed was significantly higher for pens than for stalls; lameness was the major reason for removal for both systems. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Stalls impose space restrictions for larger sows, resulting in injuries during late gestation. Interventions are needed to minimize aggression during initial introduction and mixing and at the ESF in pens to reduce severe injuries or lameness of gestating sows.

Comparison of injuries in sows housed in gestation stalls versus group pens with electronic sow feeders.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the location and severity of injuries in pregnant sows housed in individual gestation stalls with that in pregnant sows housed in dynamic groups in pens with electronic sow feeders. DESIGN: Prospective study. ANIMALS: 100 pregnant sows of parity 1 to 3 and various body weights. PROCEDURE: Fifty sows each were randomly allotted to gestation stalls or group pens with electronic sow feeders. Injuries were scored on the basis of location, number, and depth of wounds. Injury scores for sows in both housing systems were compared during a period of 90 days. The influence of factors such as duration of stay in the housing system, parity, and body weight on sow injuries was also examined. RESULTS: Injury scores were higher in group pens with electronic sow feeders. As body weight increased, injury scores decreased for sows housed in group pens with electronic sow feeders and increased for sows housed in gestation stalls. There was a significant negative association between second parity and total injury scores. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Modifications in housing system design and management procedures are needed to reduce injuries in pregnant sows.