Genotoxicity assessment of root extracts of Paeonia lactiflora Pall.

The roots of Paeonia lactiflora Pall., (Paeoniae Radix, PL) are a well-known herbal remedy used to treat fever, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, hepatitis, and gynecological disorders in East Asia. Here we evaluated the genetic toxicity of PL extracts (as a powder [PL-P] and hot-water extract [PL-W]) in accordance with the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development guidelines. The Ames test revealed that PL-W was not toxic to S. typhimurium strains and E. coli in absence and presence of the S9 metabolic activation system at concentrations up to 5000 µg/plate, but PL-P produced a mutagenic response to TA100 in the absence of S9 mix. PL-P was cytotoxic in in vitro chromosomal aberrations (more than a 50 % decrease in cell population doubling time), and it increased the frequency of structural and numerical aberrations in absence and presence of S9 mix in a concentration-dependent manner. PL-W was cytotoxic in the in vitro chromosomal aberration tests (more than a 50 % decrease in cell population doubling time) only in the absence of S9 mix, and it induced structural aberrations only in the presence of S9 mix. PL-P and PL-W did not produce toxic response during the in vivo micronucleus test after oral administration to ICR mice and did not induce positive results in the in vivo Pig-a gene mutation and comet assays after oral administration to SD rats. Although PL-P showed genotoxic in two in vitro tests, the results from physiologically relevant in vivo Pig-a gene mutation and comet assays illustrated that PL-P and PL-W does not cause genotoxic effects in rodents.

Effects of exposure to oxytetracycline on the liver proteome of red seabream (Pagrus major) in a real administration scenario.

Oxytetracycline (OTC) is a widely used antibiotic in aquaculture. In this study, red seabream (Pagrus major), the most popular aquaculture species in Japan, were treated with OTC mimicking a real administration scenario in aquaculture. The treatment groups were as follows: no OTC, 40 mg/kg body wt/day (equivalent to the dose used in actual aquaculture), or 178 mg/kg body wt/day. The first exposure was conducted for a week (1st OTC exposure period), followed by a 4-week interval, and the second exposure was for one week (2nd OTC exposure period). We investigated the effects of OTC on the liver proteome with the isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ) technology accompanied by liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. The pathway and disease enrichment analyses of differentially abundant proteins in OTC-exposed groups compared to their respective controls showed that the abundance of proteins related to the immune and nervous systems was altered after the 1st and 2nd OTC exposures, respectively. Quantitative real-time PCR of the transcripts of immune-related genes corroborated with the results of proteome analysis. OTC exposure also modulated the expression of metabolism-related proteins after the 1st and 2nd OTC exposures. Furthermore, after four weeks of the 2nd exposure, weight loss and changes in the expression of proteins related to metabolism were observed, suggesting that OTC exposure disrupts the metabolic system and causes growth inhibition. Based on these results, we suggest that the use of OTC in aquaculture poses a health risk in fish species. Thus, we need to pay more attention to the contamination with OTC in aquaculture.

Tetracycline Resistance Gene Profiles in Red Seabream (Pagrus major) Intestine and Rearing Water After Oxytetracycline Administration.

Marine aquaculture fish and the environment are possible hot spots for the maintenance and spread of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). We here show the time courses of changes of six tetracycline resistance genes (tet) in fish rearing seawater and fish intestine in tank experiments. Experimental tanks were prepared as oxytetracycline (OTC) administration tanks and those without OTC. It was found that tet(B), tet(M), and tet(W) were dominant in seawater among the six tet genes. tet(B) and tet(M) abundances increased immediately after OTC administration, indicating that OTC served as a selective pressure to increase the proportion of tet-possessing bacteria. In contrast, the abundance of tet genes in the fish intestine did not differ between the with- and without-OTC administration groups, and clearly was not altered by OTC administration. Profile changing of tet in seawater and fish intestine did not synchronize. These observations suggested that the dynamics of intestinal tet-possessing bacteria do not directly reflect the environment, but reflect selection within the intestine.

Identification of new aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) antagonists using a zebrafish model.

A new series of 1,3-diketone, heterocyclic and α,ß-unsaturated derivatives were synthesized and evaluated for their AhR antagonist activity using zebrafish and mammalian cells. Compounds 1b, 2c, 3b and 5b showed significant AhR antagonist activity in a transgenic zebrafish model. Among them, compound 3b, and 5b were found to have excellent AhR antagonist activity with IC50 of 3.36 nM and 8.3 nM in a luciferase reporter gene assay. In stem cell proliferation assay, compound 5b elicited marked HSC expansion.

In vitro and in silico AHR assays for assessing the risk of heavy oil-derived polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in fish.

In the aftermath of the Great East Japan Earthquake of March 11, 2011, marine fish in Kesennuma Bay, Japan, have been contaminated with heavy oil containing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). To estimate the risk of six PAHs (benzo[α]pyrene, dibenzothiophene, phenanthrene, 2,3,5-trimethylnaphthalene, acenaphthene, and 1-methylphenanthrene), which have been detected at high levels in the tissues of fish from Kesennuma Bay, we attempted to evaluate the effects of these PAHs on the fish aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) signaling pathway. We initially measured PAH concentrations and cytochrome P4501A catalytic activities (EROD: ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase and MROD: methoxyresorufin-O-demethylase) as markers of AHR activation in greenlings (Hexagrammos otakii) collected from Kesennuma Bay in 2014. The results showed that alkylated PAH concentrations and EROD/MROD activities were higher in sites close to the oil-spilled sites than in the control site, suggesting AHR activation by spilled alkylated PAHs. We then investigated AHR-mediated responses to these PAHs in the in vitro reporter gene assay system where red seabream (Pagrus major) AHR1 (rsAHR1) or rsAHR2 expression plasmids were transiently transfected into COS-7 cells. The in vitro assay showed rsAHR isoform-, PAH-, and dose-dependent transactivation potencies. The relative effective concentrations of benzo[α]pyrene, dibenzothiophene, phenanthrene, 2,3,5-trimethylnaphthalene, acenaphthene, and 1-methylphenanthrene that induce 20% of the maximum benzo[α]pyrene response (REC20-BaP) for rsAHR1 activation were 0.052, 38, 79, 88, 270 nM, and no response, respectively, and those for rsAHR2 activation were 0.0049, 32, 53, 88, 60 nM, and no response, respectively. The results showed that the REC20-BaP values of benzo[α]pyrene for both the rsAHR1 and rsAHR2 isoforms were lower than the concentrations (0.041-0.20 nM) detected in the muscle tissue of fish from Kesennuma Bay, while the REC20-BaP values of other PAHs were higher than their tissue concentrations. In silico rsAHR homology modeling and subsequent ligand docking simulation analyses indicated that the rsAHR activation potencies of PAHs could be predicted from a rsAHR2 model. This study shows that in vitro and in silico rsAHR analyses may be a useful tool for assessing the risks to fish contaminated with PAHs.

Auto-induction mechanism of aryl hydrocarbon receptor 2 (AHR2) gene by TCDD-activated AHR1 and AHR2 in the red seabream (Pagrus major).

The toxic effects of dioxins and related compounds (DRCs) are mediated by the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR). Our previous study identified AHR1 and AHR2 genes from the red seabream (Pagrus major). Moreover, we found that AHR2 mRNA levels were notably elevated by 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) exposure in the early life stage of red seabream embryos, while AHR1 mRNA level was not altered. In this study, to investigate the regulatory mechanism of these AHR transcripts, we cloned and characterized 5'-flanking regions of AHR1 and AHR2 genes. Both of the 5'-flanking regions in these AHR genes contained three potential xenobiotic-responsive elements (XREs). To assess whether the 5'-flanking region is transactivated by rsAHR1 and rsAHR2 proteins, we measured the transactivation potency of the luciferase reporter plasmids containing the 5'-flanking regions by AHR1 and AHR2 proteins that were transiently co-expressed in COS-7. Only reporter plasmid (pGL4-rsAHR2-3XREs) that contained three putative XRE sites in the 5'-flanking region of AHR2 gene showed a clear TCDD dose-dependent transactivation by AHR1 and AHR2 proteins. TCDD-EC50 values for the rsAHR2-derived XRE transactivation were 1.3 and 1.4 nM for AHR1 and AHR2, respectively. These results suggest that the putative XREs of AHR2 gene have a function for AHR1- and AHR2-mediated transactivation, supporting our in ovo observation of an induction of AHR2 mRNA levels by TCDD exposure. Mutations in XREs of AHR2 gene led to a decrease in luciferase induction. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay showed that XRE1, the closest XRE from the start codon in AHR2 gene, is mainly responsible for the binding with TCDD-activated AHR. This suggests that TCDD-activated AHR1 and AHR2 up-regulate the AHR2 mRNA levels and this auto-induced AHR2 may amplify the signal transduction of its downstream targets including CYP1A in the red seabream.

Identification of aryl hydrocarbon receptor signaling pathways altered in TCDD-treated red seabream embryos by transcriptome analysis.

2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) induces a broad spectrum of toxic effects including craniofacial malformation and neural damage in fish embryos. These effects are mainly mediated by the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR). However, the mode of action between TCDD-induced AHR activation and adverse outcomes is not yet understood. To provide a comprehensive picture of the AHR signaling pathway in fish embryos exposed to TCDD, red seabream (Pagrus major) embryos were treated with graded concentrations of TCDD (0.3-37nM) in seawater, or with a mixture of TCDD and 500nM CH223191, an AHR-specific antagonist. The transcriptome of red seabream embryos was analyzed using a custom-made microarray with 6000 probes specifically prepared for this species. A Jonckheere-Terpstra test was performed to screen for genes that demonstrated altered mRNA expression levels following TCDD exposure. The signals of 1217 genes (as human homologs) were significantly altered in a TCDD concentration-dependent manner (q-value<0.2). Notably, the TCDD-induced alteration in mRNA expression was alleviated by co-exposure to CH223191, suggesting that the mRNA expression level of these genes was regulated by AHR. To identify TCDD-activated pathways, the microarray data were further subjected to gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) and functional protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis. GSEA demonstrated that the effects of TCDD on sets of genes involved calcium, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), actin cytoskeleton, chemokine, T cell receptor, melanoma, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), axon guidance, and renal cell carcinoma signaling pathways. These results suggest the hypotheses that TCDD induces immunosuppression via the calcium, MAPK, chemokine, and T cell receptor signaling pathways, neurotoxicity via VEGF signaling, and axon guidance alterations and teratogenicity via the dysregulation of the actin cytoskeleton and melanoma and renal cell carcinoma signaling pathways. Furthermore, the PPI network analysis indicated that the adverse outcome pathways of TCDD in the embryos might be propagated through several hub genes such as cell division control protein 42, phosphoinositide-3-kinase regulatory subunit 1, and guanine nucleotide-binding proteins. Understanding these pathways potentially allows for exploring the adverse outcome pathway of the effects of TCDD on the red seabream embryos.

Ecological factors drive natural selection pressure of avian aryl hydrocarbon receptor 1 genotypes.

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) mediates dioxin toxicities. Several studies have suggested that two amino acid residues corresponding to the 324(th) and 380(th) positions in the ligand binding domain (LBD) of the chicken AHR1 (Ile_Ser as high sensitivity, Ile_Ala as moderate sensitivity, and Val_Ala as low sensitivity), could be an important factor determining dioxin sensitivity in avian species. Here, we analyzed the association between ecological factors and AHR1 LBD genotypes of 113 avian species. Cluster analyses showed that 2 major clusters and sub-clusters of the cluster 3 were associated with specific AHR1 genotypes depending on the food, habitat, and migration of the animal. The majority of the species with Ile_Ala type were the Passeriformes, which are omnivorous or herbivorous feeders in the terrestrial environment. The species with Val_Ala type was primarily composed of raptors and waterbirds, which have been exposed to naturally occurring dioxins. An in vitro reporter gene assay revealed that the sensitivity to a natural dioxin, 1,3,7-tribromodibenzo-p-dioxin was in the order of Ile_Ser > Ile_Ala > Val_Ala. These results suggest that ecological factors related to the exposure of natural dioxins contribute to natural selection of the avian AHR1 genotype, which consequently leads to different sensitivity to man-made dioxins.

In silico analysis of the interaction of avian aryl hydrocarbon receptors and dioxins to decipher isoform-, ligand-, and species-specific activations.

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) mediates toxic responses to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) and other dioxin-like compounds (DLCs). Avian species possess multiple AHR isoforms (AHR1, AHR1ß, and AHR2) that exhibit species- and isoform-specific responses to ligands. To account for the ligand preference in terms of the structural features of avian AHRs, we generated in silico homology models of the ligand-binding domain of avian AHRs based on holo human HIF-2α (PDB entry 3H7W ). Molecular docking simulations of TCDD and other DLCs with avian AHR1s and AHR2s using ASEDock indicated that the interaction energy increased with the number of substituted chlorine atoms in congeners, supporting AHR transactivation potencies and World Health Organization TCDD toxic equivalency factors of congeners. The potential interaction energies of an endogenous AHR ligand, 6-formylindolo [3,2-b] carbazole (FICZ) to avian AHRs were lower than those of TCDD, which was supported by a greater potency of FICZ for in vitro AHR-mediated transactivation than TCDD. The molecular dynamics simulation revealed that mean square displacements in Ile324 and Ser380 of TCDD-bound AHR1 of the chicken, the most sensitive species to TCDD, were smaller than those in other avian AHR1s, suggesting that the dynamic stability of these amino acid residues contribute to TCDD preference. For avian AHR2, the corresponding residues (Val/Ser or Val/Ala type) were not responsible for differential TCDD sensitivity. Application of the three-dimensional reference interaction site model showed that the stabilization of TCDD binding to avian AHRs may be due to the solvation effect depending on the characteristics of two amino acids corresponding to Ile324 and Ser380 in chicken AHR1. This study demonstrates that in silico simulations of AHRs and ligands could be used to predict isoform-, ligand-, and species-specific interactions.

Transient suppression of AHR activity in early red seabream embryos does not prevent the disruption of peripheral nerve projection by 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin.

The toxicity of dioxins such as 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) is mainly mediated by an aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR), which regulates the transcription of multiple target genes including cytochrome P450 1A (CYP1A). Our pervious study identified the presence of TCDD-induced defects of peripheral nerve projection in red seabream (Pagrus major) embryos. However, it remains unclear whether the TCDD-induced peripheral neurotoxicity is mediated by the AHR. To assess the contribution of the red seabream AHR (rsAHR) signaling pathway to the neuronal toxicity, red seabream embryos at 10h post-fertilization (hpf) were treated for 80 min with TCDD (0, 0.3, 5.3, and 37 nM in seawater) alone or in combination with CH223191 (500 nM in seawater), which is an AHR antagonist. A preliminary in vitro reporter gene assay confirmed that TCDD-induced transcriptional activity via rsAHR1 and rsAHR2 was suppressed by CH223191 treatment in a dose-dependent manner. CYP1A mRNA expression in embryos was determined by 2-step real time quantitative-polymerase chain reaction at 24 and 120 hpf and in situ hybridization at 48, 72, 96 and 120 hpf. The morphology of the peripheral nerve system (PNS) was also microscopically observed by fluorescent staining using an anti-acetylated tubulin antibody at 120 hpf. CYP1A mRNA expression was dose-dependently induced by TCDD at all of the examined developing stages. The suppression of TCDD-induced CYP1A expression by CH223191 treatment was observed in embryos at 24 and 48 hpf, while the effect of the rsAHR antagonist disappeared at 96 and 120 hpf. This phenomenon indicated the transient suppression of TCDD-induced rsAHR activation by CH223191 treatment. The immunostaining of peripheral nerves at 120 hpf demonstrated that the projections of the craniofacial nerve were altered in TCDD-treated embryos, and the frequency of TCDD-induced abnormal projections was not prevented by co-treatment with CH223191. These results indicate that the transient suppression of TCDD-induced rsAHR activation during the early developing stages of the red seabream does not influence the abnormal projection of peripheral nerves. In conclusion, transient rsAHR activation in the early stages of development is not involved in the neurotoxicity.

Potencies of red seabream AHR1- and AHR2-mediated transactivation by dioxins: implication of both AHRs in dioxin toxicity.

To evaluate species- and isoform-specific responses to dioxins and related compounds (DRCs) via aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) in the red seabream ( Pagrus major ), we constructed a reporter gene assay system. Each expression plasmid of red seabream AHR1 (rsAHR1) and AHR2 (rsAHR2) together with a reporter plasmid containing red seabream CYP1A 5'-flanking region were transfected into COS-7 cells. The cells were treated with graded concentrations of seven DRC congeners including 2,3,7,8-TCDD, 1,2,3,7,8-PeCDD, 1,2,3,4,7,8-HxCDD, 2,3,7,8-TCDF, 2,3,4,7,8-PeCDF, 1,2,3,4,7,8-HxCDF, and PCB126. Both rsAHR1 and rsAHR2 exhibited dose-dependent responses for all the tested congeners. The rsAHR isoform-specific TCDD induction equivalency factors (rsAHR1- and rsAHR2-IEFs) were calculated on the basis of 2,3,7,8-TCDD relative potency derived from the dose-response of each congener. The rsAHR1-IEFs of PeCDD, HxCDD, TCDF, PeCDF, and HxCDF were estimated as 0.17, 0.29, 2.5, 1.5, and 0.27, respectively. For PCB126, no rsAHR1-IEF was given because of less than 10% 2,3,7,8-TCDD maximum response. The rsAHR2-IEFs of PeCDD, HxCDD, TCDF, PeCDF, HxCDF, and PCB126 were estimated as 0.38, 0.13, 1.5, 0.93, 0.20, and 0.0085, respectively. The rsAHR1/2-IEF profiles were different from WHO toxic equivalency factors for fish. In silico docking simulations supported that both rsAHRs have potentials to bind to these congeners. These results suggest that dioxin toxicities may be mediated by both rsAHRs in red seabreams.