Urotensin II: lessons from comparative studies for general endocrinology.

The importance of combining studies across vertebrates to provide insights into the functionality of hormone systems is considered, using recent advances in Urotensin II (UII) biology to illustrate this. The impact of genome analyses on understanding ligand and UII receptor (UT) structures is reviewed, noting their high conservation from fish to mammals. The early linkage of UII with fish osmoregulatory physiology drove our investigation of possible renal actions of UII in mammals. The kidney is a potential major source of UII in mammals and endogenous peptide appears to have tonal influence over renal excretion of water and electrolytes. Blockade of UII actions by administration of UT receptor antagonist, urantide, in anaesthetised rats, indicates that endogenous UII lowers renal filtration rates and excretion of water and ions. These effects are considered in relation to apparent association of UII with a number of human cardiovascular and renal disorders. Following up the sequencing of UT in mammals here we contrast the first fish UT sequences with those in other species. It is now evident that UT expression in fish osmoregulatory tissues, such as the gill and kidney, exhibits considerable plasticity in response to physiological challenge, providing an important component of the adaptive organismal responses. A number of areas of UII research, which will continue to benefit from moving questions between appropriate vertebrate groups, have been highlighted. These comparative approaches will yield improved understanding and further novel actions of this intriguing endocrine and paracrine system, so highly conserved across the vertebrate series.

Effect of acute restraint on hypothalamic pro-vasotocin mRNA expression in flounder, Platichthys flesus.

Arginine vasotocin (AVT) stimulates release of adenocorticotrophin hormone (ACTH) in trout. However, AVT's role in fish hypothalamic-pituitary-interrenal-axis (HPIA) is not fully understood. Here, we examined distribution of AVT and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) in the magnocellular preoptic nucleus (PM) and the AVT/cortisol response to acute restraint in flounder. The GR/AVT distribution in the PM was determined using double immunohistochemistry (IHC). Flounder were confined in nets, immersed in water for 30m, with plasma and tissue samples taken prior to, 3, 24 and 48h post-confinement. Plasma osmolality, Na(+), Cl(-) and cortisol were taken as indicators of HPIA activation. Plasma AVT was measured proVT mRNA expression in the PM was detected using in situ hybridisation (ISH) with a S35 labelled oligoprobe for homologous flounder proVT. Double IHC showed the presence of GR in AVT synthesising neurones of the PM. Plasma Na(+), Cl(-), osmolality and cortisol (1.0+/-0.9 to 183.6+/-3.1mM; p<0.001) increased significantly 3h post-restraint: recovering to control levels after 48h. Plasma AVT levels did not change. However, a concomitant increase in proVT mRNA expression in the magnocellular (PMm) and gigantocellular (PMg) neurones of the PM was observed (11.1+/-1.8 to 55.2+/-9.1% 24h post-restraint; p<0.001) and levels still remained significantly elevated at 48h (p<0.01). This suggests that PMm and PMg AVT neurones are associated with HPIA activation following acute restraint, including potential cortisol negative feedback. The extended elevation of hypothalamus proAVT mRNA expression following a single acute stressor affords a possible mechanism to moderate sensitivity of the HPIA to subsequent challenges.

Salinity adaptation and gene profiling analysis in the European eel (Anguilla anguilla) using microarray technology.

The life cycle of the European eel (Anguilla anguilla) includes two long migratory periods, when the newly hatched leptocephali larvae drift on ocean currents from the Sargasso Sea to the shores of Western Europe and then again up to 30 years later when adult eels swim back to their place of birth for reproductive purposes. Prior to the migration from fresh water (FW) to sea water (SW) adult yellow eels undergo various anatomical and physiological adaptations (silvering) which promote sexual development and aid the transition to increased environmental salinities. The aim of this study was to identify and characterise changes in gene expression within the major osmoregulatory tissues of the eel which enable these fish to make the physiological adaptations required for transfer to SW environments. In particular, changes in the expression of the FW-adapting hormone prolactin were correlated with differential expression of known osmoregulatory important genes within the gill, intestine and kidney following the acclimation of eels to SW. Various tissues were sampled from individual fish at selected intervals over a 5-month period following FW/SW transfer and RNA was isolated. Suppressive subtractive hybridization (SSH) was used for enrichment of differentially expressed genes. Microarrays comprising 6144 cDNAs spotted in triplicate, from brain, gill, intestine and kidney libraries (1536 randomly selected clones per tissue library), were hybridized with appropriate targets and analysed. Microarray results were validated using known genes implicated in osmoregulation, such as prolactin, growth hormone, Na, K-ATPase and some unknown genes, the role of which in osmoregulation needs to be elucidated.

Urotensin II and renal function in the rat.

Urotensin II (UII) is a potent vasoactive hormone in mammals. However, despite its well-known effects on epithelial sodium transport in fish, little is known about its actions on the mammalian kidney. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of UII on renal function in the rat. Using standard clearance methods, the effects of rUII and the rat UII receptor (UT) antagonist, urantide, were studied. UII was measured in plasma and urine by radioimmunoassay. UII and UT were localized in the kidney by immunohistochemistry and mRNA expression quantified. Rat urinary [UII] was 1,650-fold higher than that in plasma. Immunoreactive-UII was localized to the proximal tubules, outer and inner medullary collecting ducts (IMCD); UT receptor was identified in glomerular arterioles, thin ascending limbs, and IMCD. UII and UT mRNA expression was greater in the medulla; expression was higher still in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs) associated with raised plasma (UII). Injection of rUII induced reductions in glomerular filtration rate (GFR), urine flow, and sodium excretion. Urantide infusion resulted in increases in these variables. Endogenous UII appears to contribute to the regulation of GFR and renal sodium and water handling in the rat. While hemodynamic changes predominate, we cannot rule out the possibility of a direct tubular action of UII. Increased expression of UII and UT in the SHR suggests that UII plays a role in the pathophysiology of cardiovascular disease.

Arginine vasotocin a key hormone in fish physiology and behaviour: a review with insights from mammalian models.

The arginine vasotocin (AVT) neuroendocrine system clearly provides integrative regulation of many aspects of fish physiology and behaviour, including circadian and seasonal biology, responses to stress, metabolism, reproduction, cardiovascular function, and osmoregulation. These are all considered here providing an important context for the design of experiments and interpretation of results for investigations of specific aspects of AVT function. Salt and water balance is a consistent function from fish to mammals and is examined in more detail. Both AVT and AVP secretion is sensitive to hyperosmotic stimuli and associated cellular dehydration, while hypovolaemia would appear less important. AVT and AVP both mediate renal water conservation, though actions involve different receptors and precise targets in fish (V1) and mammals (V2). The actions of AVT to promote gill NaCl extrusion in fish are conserved in the AVP-induced natriuresis in mammalian kidney to support restoration of plasma osmolality. The AVT/AVP regulatory mechanisms involve both altered neurohypophysial peptide secretion and changes in target-tissue receptor expression/modulation of action. Both mechanisms importantly afford integration with the actions of other related hormone systems.

Altered plasma and pituitary arginine vasotocin and hypothalamic provasotocin expression in flounder (Platichthys flesus) following hypertonic challenge and distribution of vasotocin receptors within the kidney.

Plasma AVT concentration, pituitary AVT content, hypothalamic provasotocin mRNA expression and other osmoregulatory parameters were measured in euryhaline flounder 4, 8, and 24 h after the hypertonic challenge of transfer from fresh water (FW) to seawater (SW). Osmolality and the concentration of major plasma ions, sodium and chloride, were significantly higher in fish transferred to SW by comparison with time matched controls, an effect evident within 4 h. By comparison with time matched controls, pituitary store of AVT was lower while plasma AVT concentration was higher 8 and 24 h after transfer to SW. Higher provasotocin mRNA expression in the hypothalamus was also seen at 4 and 8 h in flounder transferred from FW to SW compared with time matched controls. The lower pituitary store and higher circulating levels imply substantial AVT secretion occurs in the early phase response to this hypertonic challenge. Changes in the regulation of AVT synthesis and secretion appeared quickly following movement to SW, consistent with the rapid osmoregulatory response, including reduced urine production that fish require to accommodate the dehydrative water losses and salt loading on exposure to the new hyperosmotic environment. qPCR measures of whole kidney vasotocin receptor mRNA expression indicated similar levels in SW and FW. Immunohistochemistry for the vasotocin receptor in flounder kidney showed localisation on the afferent and efferent arterioles of the glomerulus and on the capillary bed that extends from the efferent arteriole to the smooth muscle surrounding the collecting duct. Localisation of the vasotocin receptor was comparable in SW and FW fish.

Diabetes in rat pregnancy alters renal calcium and magnesium reabsorption and bone formation in adult offspring.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: We tested the hypothesis that diabetes in pregnancy can result in the in-utero reprogramming of renal calcium and magnesium handling and of bone formation in the offspring, which persists into adulthood. METHODS: Male offspring of streptozotocin-treated diabetic rats (OD rats) and of control non-diabetic animals (OC rats) were investigated as neonates and at 8, 12 and 16 weeks of age. RESULTS: Compared with OC rats, urinary calcium and magnesium output was significantly reduced in OD rats at every age studied; Na+ and K+ outputs were unaffected. The renal expression of proteins involved in the tubular reabsorption of calcium (calcium ATPase, calbindin-D28k and epithelial calcium channel) was increased in OD animals compared with that in OC animals. Additionally, we observed that adult OD rats had lower trabecular and higher cortical femoral bone volumes, explained by deposition of bone on the endosteal surface. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: These data show that diabetes in pregnancy has profound effects on male offspring in terms of renal tubular calcium and magnesium reabsorption and the normal pattern of bone formation. These effects persist into adulthood. Such long-lasting effects of diabetes on kidney and the skeleton were not suspected and could have important implications for the health of children born to diabetic women.

Urotensin II: ancient hormone with new functions in vertebrate body fluid regulation.

Urotensin II (UII), described in many fish species, is secreted by the caudal neurosecretory system, a unique fish neuroendocrine structure. We have examined UII secretion and its control in euryhaline fish, supporting a proposed role in osmoregulation. However, it is now apparent that UII is present in other vertebrates, including mammals. The 12-amino-acid peptide has been highly conserved and the key cyclic region is common from fish to humans. Our UII radioimmunoassay for flounder, directed to this cyclic region, has shown circulating UII levels in humans and rats comparable with those in fish. In mammals, UII cardiovascular effects vary between species, with vasoconstriction only evident in specific vascular beds. The kidney expresses UII receptors and responds to UII administration by a reduction in glomerular filtration rate, urine flow, and excretion of the major ions. Interestingly, plasma levels of UII are chronically elevated in rat models of hypertension. These observations imply an unforeseen role for this ancient fish hormone in the physiological and perhaps pathophysiological regulation of body fluids in higher vertebrates, including humans.

Measurement of PTHrP, PTHR1, and CaSR expression levels in tissues of sea bream (Sparus aurata) using quantitative PCR.

A quantitative PCR (Q-PCR) method has been established to measure the mRNA expression levels of parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP), parathyroid hormone receptor type 1 (PTHR1), and calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) in sea bream (Sparus aurata), using the housekeeping gene, beta-actin, as endogenous control. TaqMan primers and probes were designed using the Primer Express program, according to the published/unpublished sequences of the three target genes and beta-actin of sea bream. Different tissues including gill, kidney, duodenum, hindgut, rectum, liver, heart, brain, pituitary, skin, muscle, and gonad were removed and immediately snap-frozen from three juvenile sea bream (100-150 g) cultured in sea water. The mRNAs were extracted and reverse-transcribed into cDNAs, which were subsequently examined by the ABI 5700 system using an optimized Q-PCR method. Triplicate measures of each sample indicated consistency of the technique. However, the mRNA expression levels for each transcript in these tissues were variable between fish and also relatively low. Nevertheless, this methodology can be used in the future studies of factors that may alter gene expression in these tissues.

Renal morphology of the euryhaline flounder (Platichthys flesus): distribution of arginine vasotocin receptor.

The current study characterized tubular segmentation of the European flounder nephron and localized the vasotocin receptor expression by immunohistochemistry. Flounder nephron was shown to comprise a prominent renal corpuscle, short neck segment, proximal tubule I, proximal tubule II, collecting tubule, and collecting duct. Using specific antibodies raised against flounder vasotocin receptor, specific V(1) receptor staining was detected within the glomeruli, the endothelial surface of the afferent and efferent arterioles, and the capillaries surrounding the collecting duct system. Immunostaining for the receptor was exclusively vascular and there did not appear to be a tubular component.

Electrical activity of caudal neurosecretory neurons in seawater and freshwater-adapted Platichthys flesus, in vivo.

This study examined the electrical firing activity of neuroendocrine Dahlgren cells in the caudal neurosecretory system (CNSS) of the euryhaline flounder in vivo. Intracellular recordings revealed generally similar activity patterns and membrane properties to those previously reported in vitro. To investigate the potential role of the CNSS in osmoregulatory adaptation, extracellular, multiunit, recordings compared the activity patterns of Dahlgren cells in fully seawater- and freshwater-adapted fish. The proportion of cells showing bursting (as opposed to phasic or tonic) activity was greater in seawater-than in freshwater-adapted fish, as was the Correlation Index, a measure of the degree of correlation between firing activities of cells recorded simultaneously from the same preparation. Acute transfer of fish from seawater to freshwater gill perfusion led to recruitment of previously silent Dahlgren cells and a reduction in Correlation Index; freshwater to seawater transfer increased the Correlation Index. Severing the spinal cord anterior to the CNSS led to an increase in overall Dahlgren cell activity. Electrical stimulation of branchial nerve branches providing input to the brainstem, or tactile (pinch) stimulation of lips or fins, led to a reduction in CNSS activity lasting up to 500 s, indicating the presence of descending modulatory pathways from the brain. These results are consistent with a role for CNSS neuropeptides, urotensins, in supporting survival in a hypertonic, seawater, environment.

Voltage- and Ca2+-dependent burst generation in neuroendocrine Dahlgren cells in the teleost Platichthys flesus.

The neuroendocrine Type 1 Dahlgren cells of the caudal neurosecretory system of the flounder display characteristic bursting activity, which may increase secretion efficiency. The firing activity pattern in these cells was voltage-dependent; when progressively depolarized, cells moved from silent (approximately -70 mV), through bursting and phasic to tonic firing (< -65 mV). Brief (10 s) evoked bursts of spikes were followed by a slow after-depolarization (ADP; amplitude up to 10 mV, duration 10-200 s), which was also voltage-dependent and could trigger a prolonged burst. The ADP was significantly reduced in the absence of external Ca(2+) ions or the presence of the L-type Ca(2+) channel blocker, nifedipine. BayK 8644 (which increases L-type channel open times) significantly increased ADP duration, whereas the Ca(2+)-activated nonselective cation channel blocker, flufenamic acid, had no effect. Pharmacological blockade of Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channels, using apamin and charybdotoxin, increased the duration of both ADP and evoked bursts. However, action potential waveform was unaffected by either apamin/charybdotoxin, nifedipine, BayK 8644 or removal of external Ca(2+). The short duration (approximately 100 ms), hyperpolarization-activated, postspike depolarizing afterpotentials (DAP), were significantly reduced by nifedipine. We propose that long duration ADPs underlie bursts and that short duration DAPs play a role in modulation of spike frequency.

Electrical activity of caudal neurosecretory neurons in seawater- and freshwater-adapted flounder: responses to cholinergic agonists.

The caudal neurosecretory system (CNSS) of the euryhaline flounder is involved in osmoregulatory responses underlying adaptation to seawater and freshwater. This study compared electrophysiological activity and responses to cholinergic agonists in the neuroendocrine Dahlgren cells in an in vitro preparation taken from fully seawater- (SWA) or freshwater-adapted (FWA) fish. Resting membrane and action potential parameters showed few differences between SWA and FWA cells. The hyperpolarisation-activated sag potential and depolarising afterpotential were present under both conditions; however, amplitude of the latter was significantly greater in SWA cells. The proportions of cells within the population exhibiting different firing patterns were similar in both adaptation states. However, bursting parameters were more variable in FWA cells, suggesting that bursting activity was less robust. The muscarinic agonist, oxotremorine, was largely inhibitory in Dahlgren cells, but increased activity in a non-Dahlgren cell population, alpha neurons. Nicotine promoted bursting activity in SWA Dahlgren cells, whereas it inhibited over half of FWA cells.

Determination of tissue and plasma concentrations of PTHrP in fish: development and validation of a radioimmunoassay using a teleost 1-34 N-terminal peptide.

A specific and sensitive radioimmunoassay (RIA) for the N-terminus of sea bream (Sparus auratus) and flounder (Platichthys flesus) parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) was developed. A (1-34) amino-terminal sequence of flounder PTHrP was synthesized commercially and used as the antigen to generate specific antiserum. The same sequence with an added tyrosine (1-35(Tyr)) was used for iodination. Human (1-34) parathyroid hormone (PTH), human (1-34) PTHrP, and rat (1-34) PTHrP did not cross-react with the antiserum or displace the teleost peptide. Measurement of PTHrP in fish plasma was only possible after denaturing by heat treatment due to endogenous plasma binding activity. The minimum detectable concentration of (1-34) PTHrP in the assay was 2.5 pg/tube. The level of immunoreactive (1-34) PTHrP in plasma was 5.2+/-0.44 ng/ml (mean+/-SEM, n=20) for flounder and 2.5+/-0.29 ng/ml (n=64) for sea bream. Dilution curves of denatured fish plasma were parallel to the assay standard curve, indicating that the activity in the samples was indistinguishable immunologically from (1-34) PTHrP. Immunoreactivity was present, in order of abundance, in extracts of pituitary, oesophagus, kidney, head kidney, gills, intestine, skin, muscle, and liver. The pituitary gland and oesophagus contained the most abundant levels of PTHrP, 37.7+/-6.1 ng/g wet tissue and 2.3+/-0.7 ng/g wet tissue, respectively. The results suggest that in fish PTHrP may act in a paracrine and/or autocrine manner but may also be a classical hormone with the pituitary gland as a potential major source of the protein.

Rapid stimulation of cyclic AMP production by aldosterone in rat inner medullary collecting ducts.

Aldosterone stimulates sodium transport in the inner medullary collecting duct (IMCD) via the classic genomic pathway, but it is not known whether it also acts via a rapid, non-conventional pathway in this part of the nephron. The IMCD regulates the final sodium content of urine and expresses vasopressin receptors coupled to adenylate cyclase. The recently reported rapid, non-genomic actions of aldosterone have been associated mainly with an increase in intracellular Ca(2+); however, it has also been shown to stimulate camp generation. Thus the aim of this study was to determine whether aldosterone stimulates rapid generation of cAMP in isolated IMCD segments. IMCD segments were microdissected from Sprague-Dawley rat kidneys and incubated at 37 degrees C for 4 min with aldosterone (10(-12) to 10(-6) M), vasopressin (10(-12) to 10(-6) M), or a combination of hormones in the presence of a phosphodiesterase inhibitor. cAMP was measured by radioimmunoassay. While corticosterone and dexamethasone were ineffective, aldosterone stimulated a dose-dependent increase in cAMP within 4 min (P<0.05). This action of aldosterone was not inhibited by the MR antagonist spironolactone. Co-incubation of aldosterone with vasopressin resulted in a further increase in cAMP generation above that induced by the neurohypophysial hormone alone. Aldosterone-mediated cAMP generation was not inhibited by a vasopressin V(1) or V(2) receptor antagonist. These data support a novel and rapid, non-genomic effect of aldosterone in IMCD. Aldosterone does not apparently interact with the vasopressin receptor to stimulate cAMP generation.

Calcium-sensing receptors and parathyroid hormone-related protein in the caudal neurosecretory system of the flounder (Platichthys flesus).

The caudal neurosecretory system of the flounder (Platichthys flesus) has been examined by immunocytochemistry and in situ hybridization for the expression of parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) and calcium-sensing receptors (CaSR). The N-terminus nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequences of flounder PTHrP were determined and used to prepare oligonucleotide probes and homologous antiserum. The Dahlgren cells of the posterior spinal cord and their axons contained PTHrP protein which was also detected around the capillaries of the urophysis. PTHrP gene expression was abundant in the Dahlgren perikarya and axons in the spinal cord, but it was absent from nerve endings in the urophysis. Calcium-sensing receptor protein was present in the Dahlgren perikarya and axons, also with abundant gene expression, but there was neither protein nor mRNA in the urophysis. There were no apparent differences between freshwater- and seawater-adapted fish in either CaSR or PTHrP expression in the caudal neurosecretory system. These observations suggest that Dahlgren cells produce PTHrP which may be released from axons abutting capillaries in the urophysis. However, the sensing of ionic calcium appears to be confined to the perikarya of the Dahlgren cells in the spinal cord neuropil, suggesting that they are responsive to calcium in the central nervous system rather than the general circulation.

Neurohypophysial hormones and renal function in fish and mammals.

The two major basic neurohypophysial peptides, arginine vasopressin (AVP) of mammals and arginine vasotocin (AVT) of all non-mammalian vertebrates, share common structure and major roles in regulating renal function. In this review the complexity of AVP actions within the mammalian kidney is discussed and comparisons are made with the emerging picture of AVT's renal effects in fish. It has become apparent that the antidiuretic action of the neurohypophysial hormones is an ancient phylogenetic phenomenon, although this is based upon reduced glomerular filtration in fish by comparison with predominant tubular effects in mammals. Nonetheless, there appears to be retention of AVP effects upon the functional heterogeneity of nephron populations in mammals. Preliminary evidence for the possible existence of V(2)-type (tubular) neurohypophysial hormone receptors in fish, implies possible AVT actions which parallel those in mammals on tubular ion transport. Further insight from recent mammalian tubule microperfusion studies suggests that in teleost fish both apical (tubular lumen) and basolateral (blood borne) AVT have the potential to modulate renal function, though this remains to be examined.

Plasma concentrations of arginine vasotocin and urotensin II are reduced following transfer of the euryhaline flounder (Platichthys flesus) from seawater to fresh water.

Plasma concentrations and stored levels of the neuroendocrine peptides arginine vasotocin (AVT) and urotensin II (UII) were measured in the euryhaline flounder (Platichthys flesus) following the acute hypo-osmotic challenge of direct seawater (SW) to fresh water (FW) transfer. Hormone measures, plasma osmolality, and ion concentrations and tissue water content were determined 1, 4, 8, 24, 72, and 144 h after transfer. Plasma AVT concentration fell initially following FW transfer but then returned toward pretransfer levels by day 6. Plasma UII concentration decreased while urophysial UII content was increased following hypo-osmotic challenge relative to SW time-matched controls, suggesting down regulation of the UII system during the initial stages after FW transfer. These changes in neuroendocrine activity were associated with a significant fall in plasma osmolality and major plasma ions. Positive correlations were observed between plasma AVT and osmolality and Cl- and Mg2+ concentrations, suggesting functional association of these plasma parameters with AVT action and/or control of AVT secretion. The initial response to hypotonic challenge involves reduced plasma AVT and UII levels consistent with the proposed role for these hormones, supporting flounder osmoregulation in hypertonic media.

Day-night variations in plasma melatonin and arginine vasotocin concentrations in chronically cannulated flounder (Platichthys flesus).

Chronically catheterised, free swimming flounder (Platichthys flesus) have been used in experiments examining the day-night variations in circulating levels of melatonin (Mel) and arginine vasotocin (AVT). Under normal photoperiod (16 h light/8 h dark) serial blood samples taken from individual fish demonstrated a Mel rhythm with daytime levels at 09.00 and 15.00 h (238+/-14 and 179+/-12 fmol x ml(-1), respectively) lower than those at 23.00 h (1920+/-128 fmol x ml(-1)). Maintenance of fish in 24-h light abolished the light/dark Mel rhythm and circulating levels were comparable to those measured during the day in fish under normal photoperiod illumination. In fish maintained under 24 h dark, although a daily rhythm was still apparent, at the time when it would be normally dark, plasma Mel concentration was reduced and at times when it would be normally light, levels were higher than in fish maintained under normal light/dark illumination. Plasma AVT concentrations were higher in fish during the day (4.4+/-0.8 fmol x ml(-1)) than those at night (1.5+/-0.4 fmol x ml(-1)), the opposite to that seen with Mel. During acute study infusion of AVT resulted in reduced levels of plasma Mel, although this did not achieve statistical significance. Infusion of Mel did not alter circulating AVT concentration.