Pediatric Hypertension: A Condition That Matters.

Systemic hypertension has been considered mainly as an adult health issue for a long time, but it is now being increasingly acknowledged as a significant problem also among pediatric patients. The frequency of pediatric hypertension has grown mostly because of increases in childhood obesity and sedentary lifestyles, but secondary forms of hypertension play a role as well. Considering that unaddressed hypertension during childhood can result in enduring cardiovascular complications, timely identification and intervention are essential. Strategies for addressing this disease encompass not only lifestyle adjustments, but also the use of medications when needed. Lifestyle modifications entail encouraging a nutritious diet, consistent physical activity, and the maintenance of a healthy weight. Moreover, educating both children and their caregivers about monitoring blood pressure at home can aid in long-term management. Thus, the aim of this review is to discuss the etiologies, classification, and principles of the treatment of hypertension in pediatric patients.

Repaired Tetralogy of Fallot: Have We Understood the Right Timing of PVR?

Despite many advances in surgical repair during the past few decades, the majority of tetralogy of Fallot patients continue to experience residual hemodynamic and electrophysiological abnormalities. The actual issue, which has yet to be solved, is understanding how this disease evolves in each individual patient and, as a result, who is truly at risk of sudden death, as well as the proper timing of pulmonary valve replacement (PVR). Our responsibility should be to select the most appropriate time for each patient, going above and beyond imaging criteria used up to now to make such a clinically crucial decision. Despite several studies on timing, indications, procedures, and outcomes of PVR, there is still much uncertainty about whether PVR reduces arrhythmia burden or improves survival in these patients and how to appropriately manage this population. This review summarizes the most recent research on the evolution of repaired tetralogy of Fallot (from adolescence onwards) and risk factor variables that may favor or delay PVR.

Electrocardiography in Children Hospitalized for COVID-19 and Not Suffering from Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C): An Observational Study.

The risk of cardiac involvement with electrophysiological abnormalities during COVID-19 infection has been reported in adults but remains poorly studied in children. Our aim was to determine the frequency of cardiac involvement and the necessity of routine cardiac evaluation in children hospitalized for COVID-19. This observational study included 127 children, with a median (IQR) age of 2 (0.83-6.0) years, who were hospitalized for COVID-19 between 1 January 2021 and 31 August 2022, 62 (48.8%) of whom were males. Each patient underwent an ECG on admission and discharge as well as a laboratory assessment. A comparison between patients with COVID-19 and healthy controls showed significantly higher HR (p < 0.0001) and lower PR values (p = 0.02) in the first group. No arrhythmias or other electrocardiographic abnormalities were detected during hospitalization. The median levels of troponin, NT-proBNP, ferritin, and D-dimer were significantly higher in children aged <2 years, but they fell within the normal range for their age. Our results indicate that a detectable cardiac involvement is very rare in children hospitalized for COVID-19 and not suffering from Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) and suggest that routine electrocardiographic assessment is not mandatory in these patients in the absence of cardiac symptoms/signs.

The Association between Mid-Upper Arm Circumference and Blood Pressure in an Italian Population of School-Aged Children and Adolescents with Lipid Disorders.

Background: Many anthropometric measurements have been investigated concerning their association with blood pressure (BP) in paediatric age groups. This study aims to find a relationship between mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC) and BP in a population of children and adolescents aged 1-18 years. Methods: 5853 subjects (2977 females and 2876 males) were studied. MUAC, body mass index (BMI), and BP were measured. The individuals in the study were subdivided and grouped by gender and type of school attended in Italy: 1-5 years (pre-school), 6-10 years (primary school), 11-13 years (secondary school), 14-18 years (high school). Results: In the age range of 6-13 years, all the subjects with MUAC > 50th percentile had systolic and diastolic BP significantly higher than children with MUAC below 50th percentile (p < 0.0001). In the age range 14-18 years, the relationship persisted only in females (p < 0.001 and p < 0.05 for diastolic and systolic BP, respectively). A linear relationship was found between MUAC and BMI. Conclusions: In Italian children of both genders aged 6-13, arm distribution of body fat is strongly associated with increased systolic and diastolic BP. As such, a simple anthropometric measurement like MUAC might represent a tool to identify young subjects who are at risk for HTN.

Modern tools in congenital heart disease imaging and procedure planning: a European survey.

AIMS: Congenital heart diseases (CHDs) often show a complex 3D anatomy that must be well understood to assess the pathophysiological consequences and to guide therapy. Three-dimensional imaging technologies have the potential to enhance the physician's comprehension of such spatially complex anatomies. Unfortunately, due to the new introduction in clinical practice, there is no evidence on the current applications. We conducted a survey to examine how 3D technologies are currently used among CHD European centres. METHODS: Data were collected using an online self-administered survey via SurveyMonkey. The questionnaire was sent via e-mail and the responses were collected between January and June 2022. RESULTS: Ninety-eight centres correctly completed the survey. Of these, 22 regularly perform 3D rotational angiography, 43 have the availability to print in-silico models, and 22 have the possibility to visualize holographic imaging/virtual reality. The costs were mostly covered by the hospital or the department of financial resources. CONCLUSION: From our survey, it emerges that these technologies are quite spread across Europe, despite not being part of a routine practice. In addition, there are still not enough data supporting the improvement of clinical management for CHD patients. For this reason, further studies are needed to develop clinical recommendations for the use of 3D imaging technologies in medical practice.

Adult congenital heart disease training in Europe: current status, disparities and potential solutions.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to determine the status of training of adult congenital heart disease (ACHD) cardiologists in Europe. METHODS: A questionnaire was sent to ACHD cardiologists from 34 European countries. RESULTS: Representatives from 31 of 34 countries (91%) responded. ACHD cardiology was recognised by the respective ministry of Health in two countries (7%) as a subspecialty. Two countries (7%) have formally recognised ACHD training programmes, 15 (48%) have informal (neither accredited nor certified) training and 14 (45%) have very limited or no programme. Twenty-five countries (81%) described training ACHD doctors 'on the job'. The median number of ACHD centres per country was 4 (range 0-28), median number of ACHD surgical centres was 3 (0-26) and the median number of ACHD training centres was 2 (range 0-28). An established exit examination in ACHD was conducted in only one country (3%) and formal certification provided by two countries (7%). ACHD cardiologist number versus gross domestic product Pearson correlation coefficient=0.789 (p<0.001). CONCLUSION: Formal or accredited training in ACHD is rare among European countries. Many countries have very limited or no training and resort to 'train people on the job'. Few countries provide either an exit examination or certification. Efforts to harmonise training and establish standards in exit examination and certification may improve training and consequently promote the alignment of high-quality patient care.

The Role of Multimodality Imaging in Patients with Congenital Heart Disease and Infective Endocarditis.

Infective endocarditis (IE) represents an important medical challenge, particularly in patients with congenital heart diseases (CHD). Its early and accurate diagnosis is crucial for effective management to improve patient outcomes. Multimodality imaging is emerging as a powerful tool in the diagnosis and management of IE in CHD patients, offering a comprehensive and integrated approach that enhances diagnostic accuracy and guides therapeutic strategies. This review illustrates the utilities of each single multimodality imaging, including transthoracic and transoesophageal echocardiography, cardiac computed tomography (CCT), cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging (CMR), and nuclear imaging modalities, in the diagnosis of IE in CHD patients. These imaging techniques provide crucial information about valvular and intracardiac structures, vegetation size and location, abscess formation, and associated complications, helping clinicians make timely and informed decisions. However, each one does have limitations that influence its applicability.

Metabolomics in Pulmonary Hypertension-A Useful Tool to Provide Insights into the Dark Side of a Tricky Pathology.

Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a multifaceted illness causing clinical manifestations like dyspnea, fatigue, and cyanosis. If left untreated, it often evolves into irreversible pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), leading to death. Metabolomics is a laboratory technique capable of providing insights into the metabolic pathways that are responsible for a number of physiologic or pathologic events through the analysis of a biological fluid (such as blood, urine, and sputum) using proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy or mass spectrometry. A systematic review was finalized according to the PRISMA scheme, with the goal of providing an overview of the research papers released up to now on the application of metabolomics to PH/PAH. So, eighty-five papers were identified, of which twenty-four concerning PH, and sixty-one regarding PAH. We found that, from a metabolic standpoint, the hallmarks of the disease onset and progression are an increase in glycolysis and impaired mitochondrial respiration. Oxidation is exacerbated as well. Specific metabolic fingerprints allow the characterization of some of the specific PH and PAH subtypes. Overall, metabolomics provides insights into the biological processes happening in the body of a subject suffering from PH/PAH. The disarranged metabolic pathways underpinning the disease may be the target of new therapeutic agents. Metabolomics will allow investigators to make a step forward towards personalized medicine.

Isolated left ventricular apical hypoplasia: Systematic review and analysis of the 37 cases reported so far.

BACKGROUND: Isolated left ventricular apical hypoplasia (ILVAH), also known as truncated left ventricle (LV), is a very unusual cardiomyopathy. It is characterised by a truncated, spherical, and non-apex forming LV. The true apex is occupied by the right ventricle. Due to the rarity of the disease, just a few case reports and limited case series have been published in the field. AIM: To analysing the so far 37 reported ILVAH cases worldwide. METHODS: The electronic databases PubMed and Scopus were investigated from their establishment up to December 13, 2022. RESULTS: The majority of cases reported occurred in males (52.7%). Mean age at diagnosis was 26.1 ± 19.6 years. More than a third of the patients were asymptomatic (35.1%). The most usual clinical presentation was breathlessness (40.5%). The most commonly detected electrocardiogram changes were T wave abnormalities (29.7%) and right axis deviation with poor R wave progression (24.3%). Atrial fibrillation/flutter was detected in 24.3%. Echocardiography was performed in 97.3% of cases and cardiac MRI in 91.9% of cases. Ejection fraction was reduced in more than a half of patients (56.7%). An associated congenital heart disease was found in 16.2%. Heart failure therapy was administered in 35.1% of patients. The outcome was favorable in the vast majority of patients, with just one death. CONCLUSION: ILVAH is a multifaceted entity with a so far unpredictable course, ranging from benign until the elderly to sudden death during adolescence.

The Role of Multimodality Imaging in Pediatric Cardiomyopathies.

Cardiomyopathies are a heterogeneous group of myocardial diseases representing the first cause of heart transplantation in children. Diagnosing and classifying the different phenotypes can be challenging, particularly in this age group, where cardiomyopathies are often overlooked until the onset of severe symptoms. Cardiovascular imaging is crucial in the diagnostic pathway, from screening to classification and follow-up assessment. Several imaging modalities have been proven to be helpful in this field, with echocardiography undoubtedly representing the first imaging approach due to its low cost, lack of radiation, and wide availability. However, particularly in this clinical context, echocardiography may not be able to differentiate from cardiomyopathies with similar phenotypes and is often complemented with cardiovascular magnetic resonance. The latter allows a radiation-free differentiation between different phenotypes with unique myocardial tissue characterization, thus identifying the presence and extent of myocardial fibrosis. Nuclear imaging and computed tomography have a complementary role, although they are less used in daily clinical practice due to the concern related to the use of radiation in pediatric patients. However, these modalities may have some advantages in evaluating children with cardiomyopathies. This paper aims to review the strengths and limitations of each imaging modality in evaluating pediatric patients with suspected or known cardiomyopathies.

Cardiovascular prevention in childhood: a consensus document of the Italian Society of Cardiology Working Group on Congenital Heart Disease and Cardiovascular Prevention in Paediatric Age.

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) may be manifested from a very early age. Genetic and environmental (epigenetic) factors interact to affect development and give rise to an abnormal phenotypical expression of genetic information, although not eliciting changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA. It has been scientifically proven that increased oxidative stress (OS) caused by disease (overweight, obesity, diabetes), nutritional imbalances, unhealthy lifestyles (smoking, alcohol, substance abuse) in the mother during pregnancy may induce placental dysfunction, intrauterine growth restriction, prematurity, low birth weight, postnatal adiposity rebound, metabolic alterations and consequent onset of traditional cardiovascular risk factors. OS represents the cornerstone in the onset of atherosclerosis and manifestation of CVD following an extended asymptomatic period. OS activates platelets and monocytes eliciting the release of pro-inflammatory, pro-atherogenic and pro-oxidising substances resulting in endothelial dysfunction, decrease in flow-mediated arterial dilatation and increase in carotid intima-media thickness. The prevention of CVD is defined as primordial (aimed at preventing risk factors development), primary (aimed at early identification and treatment of risk factors), secondary (aimed at reducing risk of future events in patients who have already manifested a cardiovascular event), and tertiary (aimed at limiting the complex outcome of disease). Atherosclerosis prevention should be implemented as early as possible. Appropriate screening should be carried out to identify children at high risk who are apparently healthy and implement measures including dietary and lifestyle changes, addition of nutritional supplements and, lastly, pharmacological treatment if risk profiles fail to normalise. Reinstating endothelial function during the reversible stage of atherosclerosis is crucial.

Pregnancy in Patients with Moderate and Highly Complex Congenital Heart Disease.

Although not completely devoid of risk, pregnancy can be managed in virtually all patients affected by even the most complex forms of congenital heart disease. It is not however advisable in patients with any form of pulmonary arterial hypertension. Pregnancy is even manageable in patients with univentricular heart converted to Fontan circulation. A personalised risk stratification should be performed, and patients affected by advanced NYHA functional class appropriately warned of the potential risks. In this setting, metabolomics might represent a novel tool for use in conducting personalised risk stratification. All pregnancies, particularly those at higher risk, should be managed in a tertiary care centre capable of providing the necessary assistance to both the mother and infant. With a few rare exceptions, vaginal delivery is to be preferred over caesarean section due to the lower degree of maternal and foetal complications. The desire for motherhood, at times extreme in women with congenital heart disease, may often be accomplished, thus providing a ray of hope in the lives of these patients.

Nailfold capillaroscopy reveals early peripheral microcirculation abnormalities in children affected by heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia.

BACKGROUND: nailfold capillaroscopy (NCF) is a non-invasive imaging technique to seek peripheral microcirculation abnormalities in children and adults. Familial hypercholesterolemia is a genetic disorder caused by mutations capable of increasing blood levels of low-density lipoproteins cholesterol (LDL-C), thus triggering early atherosclerosis. The study aims at evaluating peripheral microcirculation in children with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia (HeFH) by means of NFC in comparison with healthy peers and at searching for possible correlations between these abnormalities and patients' lipid panel. METHODS: thirty-six HeFH patients were enrolled (13 males and 23 females. Mean age 8 ± 3 years; age range 3-13 years). They had increased levels of total cholesterol (237.9 ± 34.2 mg/dl) and LDL-C (154.2 ± 37.6 mg/dl). Both values were ≥95th gender and age specific centile. All the subjects in the study underwent NFC. RESULTS: In 69.4 % of HeFH children nailfold capillaries were tortuous (p < 0.00001 compared to healthy controls). In 41.6 % the number of capillaries was markedly reduced (<7 capillaries/mm). The mean number of capillaries was 8.4 ± 2.6/mm in HeFH and 12.2 ± 1.4/mm in healthy controls (p < 0.00001). In 100 % of the sample size capillary blood flow was slowed down (p < 0.00001). In 50 % of the sample size a blood "sludge" phenomenon was seen (p < 0.00001). No gender differences were detected. Sludge phenomenon was seen only in those with LDL-C over 99th centile (p < 0.00001). CONCLUSION: NCF allows the identification of an early peripheral microvascular dysfunction in HeFH children which is similar to that already seen in atherosclerotic disease. Prompt identification of these capillary abnormalities may be crucial in implementing early prevention measures.

Primary and secondary paediatric hypertension.

High blood pressure (BP) or hypertension is a well known risk factor for developing heart attack, stroke, atrial fibrillation and renal failure. Although in the past hypertension was supposed to develop at middle age, it is now widely recognized that it begins early during childhood. As such, approximately 5-10% of children and adolescents are hypertensive. Unlike that previously reported, it is now widely accepted that primary hypertension is the most diffuse form of high BP encountered even in paediatric age, while secondary hypertension accounts just for a minority of the cases. There are significant differences between that outlined by the European Society of Hypertension (ESH), the European Society of Cardiology (ESC), and the last statement by the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) concerning the BP cut-offs to identify young hypertensive individuals. Not only that, but the AAP have also excluded obese children in the new normative data. This is undoubtedly a matter of concern. Conversely, both the AAP and ESH/ESC agree that medical therapy should be reserved just for nonresponders to measures like weight loss/salt intake reduction/increase in aerobic exercise. Secondary hypertension often occurs in aortic coarctation or chronic renal disease patients. The former can develop hypertension despite early effective repair. This is associated with significant morbidity and is arguably the most important adverse outcome in about 30% of these subjects. Also, syndromic patients, for example those with Williams syndrome, may suffer from a generalized aortopathy, which triggers increased arterial stiffness and hypertension. This review summarizes the state-of-the-art situation regarding primary and secondary paediatric hypertension.

Strategies to Aid Successful Transition of Adolescents with Congenital Heart Disease: A Systematic Review.

The majority of patients born with congenital heart disease (CHD) need lifelong surveillance with serial clinical attendance and examinations. However, loss of follow-up (namely no documented follow-up for 3 years or more) is a recognised common problem since it is often related to remarkable worsening in the health of CHD patients with increased morbidity and mortality. Transitioning from paediatric to adult care has proven to be the most vulnerable point in the care of these subjects. As such, a systematic review was carried out to ask the following questions: What is the percentage of loss of follow-up worldwide? Are there regional fluctuations in the percentage? Is there a link between loss of follow-up and the complexity of CHD? What strategies should be employed to lower the risk of discontinuity in care? The most recent worldwide averaged loss of follow-up is 26.1%, with significant fluctuations across continents and countries. This percentage is even higher (31.9%) when one includes all untraceable patients, presuming that they are not having any cardiac follow-up. The highest discontinuity of care was reported in the USA and in patients with simple CHD. Planning the rules of transition seems to be one of the most reliable tools to minimise the number of CHD patients who are lost in transition. Recalling patients, with general practitioners who are crucial in readdressing half of the lost to follow-up CHD patients to adult CHD specialists, and a good relationship between paediatric cardiologists and the adult CHD team are two other valuable strategies in aiding successful transition.

Idiopathic Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension in Paediatrics Represents Still a Serious Challenge: A Case Series Study.

INTRODUCTION: Paediatric pulmonary hypertension (PH) represents a heterogeneous illness that is responsible for high morbidity and mortality if left without treatment. Idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) is a subtype of PAH rarely seen in paediatrics. Limited long-term data are available. METHODS: Over a period of 20 years, 10 paediatric patients were enrolled at two tertiary centres. Their clinical, echocardiographic, and right heart catheterisation (RHC) features and outcome were evaluated. RESULTS: The mean age at first diagnosis was 5.7 ± 5.7 years. The age at the last follow-up was 12.4 ± 6.1 years. The average follow-up was 6.6 ± 0.8 years. There was a female prevalence of 60% (p < 0.05) in this case series. Regarding the NYHA functional class, 80% of IPAH subjects were in class III or IV. The mean saturation was 91 ± 5%. In this regard, 70% of the patients were on a combination of three drugs, with sildenafil (90%) included. On echocardiography, longitudinal right ventricular contractility (TAPSE) was slightly reduced (13.4 ± 2.6 mm), whilst RVSP was severely elevated (101 ± 19 mmHg). The RHC data showed that mPAP was 61.8 ± 23.1 mmHg (p = 0.0017 with RVSP on echocardiography), mRAP was 10.7 ± 3.8 mmHg, CI was 2.6 ± 1 L·min-1·m-2, PVRi was 16.8 ± 12.6 WU·m2, and SVO2 was 63.6 ± 14.8%. Regarding the outcome, two male IPAH patients (20%) died, and 50% underwent lung transplant or were on transplant assessment or already on the waiting list for lung transplantation. One patient underwent a ductus arteriosus stenting (reverse Potts shunt) and another underwent atrial septostomy and stenting. CONCLUSIONS: Notwithstanding the progress in medical therapy, IPAH continues to represent a serious challenge, particularly in the paediatric population, with the need for lung transplantation and significant mortality.

Planning Transition of Care for Adolescents Affected by Congenital Heart Disease: The Irish National Pathway.

At some point in their life, adolescent patients with a congenital heart disease (CHD) transition from paediatric services to adult care facilities. The process is not without any risks, as it is often linked with a significantly progressive deterioration in adolescents' health and loss of follow-up. In fact, transition patients often encounter troubles in finding a care giver who is comfortable managing their condition, or in re-establishing trust with the new care provider. Planning the rules of transition is pivotal in preventing these risks. Unfortunately, the American and European guidelines on CHD provide just generic statements about transition. In a recently published worldwide inter-societies consensus document, a hybrid model of transition, which should be adapted for use in high- and low- resource settings, has been suggested. Currently, in literature there are a few models of transition for CHD patients, but they are by far local models and cannot be generalized to other regions or countries. This paper describes the Irish model for transition of care of CHD patients. Due to the peculiarity of the healthcare organization in the Republic of Ireland, which is centralized with one main referral centre for paediatric cardiology (in Dublin, with a few smaller satellite centres all around, according to the "hub and spoke" model) and one centre for adult with CHD (in Dublin), the model can be considered as a national one and the first to be released in the old continent.

Familial Hypercholesterolaemia in Children and Adolescents: Current and Future Perspectives.

Familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) is a genetic disease, the underlying cause of which is represented by mutations capable of influencing the metabolism of low-density lipoproteins (LDL). The distinguishing characteristic of FH has increased LDL cholesterol blood levels since birth, triggering early development of atherosclerosis-related diseases. Diagnosis of FH is frequently either missed or made with a considerable delay. Prompt identification of the disease is pivotal in implementing early prevention measures. Safe and effective drugs have been approved for use in children and adolescents, with statins, with or without ezetimibe, representing first-line therapy. At times, however, these medications may not be sufficient to achieve the therapeutic target, particularly in homozygous FH patients. Lipoprotein apheresis, which has proved safe and efficient, is strongly suggested in such cases. New drugs still at the investigational stage may represent a promising and personalised therapy. Lowering cholesterol levels in childhood hampers the formation of arterial atherosclerotic plaques, thus reducing cardiovascular events later in life. Accordingly, early detection, diagnosis, and therapy in FH subjects are priority aims.