Bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation differences by sex - The role of arrest recognition.

PURPOSE: To assess whether bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) differed by patient sex among bystander-witnessed out-of-hospital cardiac arrests (OHCA). METHODS: This study is a retrospective analysis of paramedic-attended OHCA in New South Wales (NSW) between January 2017 to December 2019 (restricted to bystander-witnessed cases). Exclusions included OHCA in aged care, medical facilities, with advance care directives, from non-medical causes. Multivariate logistic regression examined the association of patient sex with bystander CPR. Secondary outcomes were OHCA recognition, bystander AED application, initial shockable rhythm, and survival outcomes. RESULTS: Of 4,491cases, females were less likely to receive bystander CPR in private residential (Adjusted Odds ratio [AOR]: 0.82, 95%CI: 0.70-0.95) and public locations (AOR: 0.58, 95%CI:0.39-0.88). OHCA recognition during the emergency call was lower for females arresting in public locations (84.6% vs 91.6%, p = 0.002) and this partially explained the association of sex with bystander CPR (∼44%). This difference in recognition was not observed in private residential locations (p = 0.2). Bystander AED use was lower for females (4.8% vs 9.6%, p < 0.001); however, after adjustment for location and other covariates, this relationship was no longer significant (AOR: 0.83, 95%CI: 0.60-1.12). Females were less likely to be in an initial shockable rhythm (AOR: 0.52, 95%CI: 0.44-0.61), but more likely to survive the event (AOR: 1.34, 95%CI: 1.15-1.56). There was no sex difference in survival to hospital discharge (AOR: 0.96, 95%CI: 0.77-1.19). CONCLUSION: OHCA recognition and bystander CPR differ by patient sex in NSW. Research is needed to understand why this difference occurs and to raise public awareness of this issue.

Perceptions and experiences of paramedics managing people with non-traumatic low back pain: a qualitative study of Australian paramedics.

BACKGROUND: Paramedics are often first providers of care to patients experiencing non-traumatic low back pain (LBP), though their perspectives and experiences with managing these cases remain unclear. OBJECTIVES: This study explored paramedic views of the management of non-traumatic LBP including their role and experience with LBP management, barriers to referral and awareness of ambulance service guidelines. DESIGN: Qualitative study using semistructured interviews conducted between January and April 2023. SETTING: New South Wales Ambulance service. PARTICIPANTS: A purposive sample of 30 paramedics of different specialities employed by New South Wales Ambulance were recruited. RESULTS: Paramedic accounts demonstrated the complexity, challenge, frustration and reward associated with managing non-traumatic LBP. Paramedics perceived that their primary role focused on the assessment of LBP, and that calls to ambulance services were often driven by misconceptions surrounding the management of LBP, and a person's pain severity. Access to health services, patient factors, defensive medicine, paramedic training and education and knowledge of guidelines influenced paramedic management of LBP. CONCLUSION: Paramedics often provide care to non-traumatic LBP cases yet depending on the type of paramedic speciality find these cases to be frustrating, challenging or rewarding to manage due to barriers to referral including access to health services, location, patient factors and uncertainty relating to litigation. Future research should explore patient perspectives towards ambulance service use for the management of their LBP.

Tranexamic Acid for Traumatic Injury in the Emergency Setting: A Systematic Review and Bias-Adjusted Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: Traumatic injury causes a significant number of deaths due to bleeding. Tranexamic acid (TXA), an antifibrinolytic agent, can reduce bleeding in traumatic injuries and potentially enhance outcomes. Previous reviews suggested potential TXA benefits but did not consider the latest trials. METHODS: A systematic review and bias-adjusted meta-analysis were performed to assess TXA's effectiveness in emergency traumatic injury settings by pooling estimates from randomized controlled trials. Researchers searched Medline, Embase, and Cochrane Central for randomized controlled trials comparing TXA's effects to a placebo in emergency trauma cases. The primary endpoint was 1-month mortality. The methodological quality of the trials underwent assessment using the MASTER scale, and the meta-analysis applied the quality-effects method to adjust for methodological quality. RESULTS: Seven randomized controlled trials met the set criteria. This meta-analysis indicated an 11% decrease in the death risk at 1 month after TXA use (odds ratio [OR] 0.89, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.84 to 0.95) with a number needed to treat of 61 to avoid 1 additional death. The meta-analysis also revealed reduced 24-hour mortality (OR 0.76, 95% CI 0.65 to 0.88) for TXA. No compelling evidence of increased vascular occlusive events emerged (OR 0.96, 95% CI 0.73 to 1.27). Subgroup analyses highlighted TXA's effectiveness in general trauma versus traumatic brain injury and survival advantages when administered out-of-hospital versus inhospital. CONCLUSIONS: This synthesis demonstrates that TXA use for trauma in emergencies leads to a reduction in 1-month mortality, with no significant evidence of problematic vascular occlusive events. Administering TXA in the out-of-hospital setting is associated with reduced mortality compared to inhospital administration, and less mortality with TXA in systemic trauma is noted compared with traumatic brain injury specifically.

Video versus direct laryngoscopy by specialist paramedics in New South Wales: Preliminary results from a new airway registry.

OBJECTIVES: Video laryngoscopy (VL) is increasingly used as an alternative to direct laryngoscopy (DL) to improve airway visualisation and endotracheal intubation (ETI) success. Intensive Care Paramedics in New South Wales Ambulance, Australia started using VL in 2020, and recorded success in a new advanced airway registry. We used this registry to compare VL to DL. METHODS: The present study was a retrospective analysis of out-of-hospital data for ETI by specialist paramedics using an airway registry. We calculated overall and first-pass success for VL versus DL, and compared success using a Χ2 test. RESULTS: The DL overall success was 61 out of 78 (78.2%) and VL was 233 out of 246 (94.7%); difference of 16.5% (P < 0.001). First-pass for DL was successful for 49 out of 78 (62.8%) and for VL in 195 out of 246 (79.3%); difference of 16.5% (P = 0.003). There were five (1.6%) patients where both VL and DL were used and in all instances, DL was used first. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis of a new airway registry used by specialist paramedics in New South Wales shows a substantial increase in overall and first-pass intubation success with the use of VL when compared to DL.

2021 International Consensus on Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care Science With Treatment Recommendations: Summary From the Basic Life Support; Advanced Life Support; Neonatal Life Support; Education, Implementation, and Teams; First Aid Task Forces; and the COVID-19 Working Group.

The International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation initiated a continuous review of new, peer-reviewed published cardiopulmonary resuscitation science. This is the fifth annual summary of the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation International Consensus on Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care Science With Treatment Recommendations; a more comprehensive review was done in 2020. This latest summary addresses the most recently published resuscitation evidence reviewed by International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation task force science experts. Topics covered by systematic reviews in this summary include resuscitation topics of video-based dispatch systems; head-up cardiopulmonary resuscitation; early coronary angiography after return of spontaneous circulation; cardiopulmonary resuscitation in the prone patient; cord management at birth for preterm and term infants; devices for administering positive-pressure ventilation at birth; family presence during neonatal resuscitation; self-directed, digitally based basic life support education and training in adults and children; coronavirus disease 2019 infection risk to rescuers from patients in cardiac arrest; and first aid topics, including cooling with water for thermal burns, oral rehydration for exertional dehydration, pediatric tourniquet use, and methods of tick removal. Members from 6 International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation task forces have assessed, discussed, and debated the quality of the evidence, according to the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation criteria, and their statements include consensus treatment recommendations or good practice statements. Insights into the deliberations of the task forces are provided in Justification and Evidence-to-Decision Framework Highlights sections. In addition, the task forces listed priority knowledge gaps for further research.

2021 International Consensus on Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care Science With Treatment Recommendations: Summary From the Basic Life Support; Advanced Life Support; Neonatal Life Support; Education, Implementation, and Teams; First Aid Task Forces; and the COVID-19 Working Group.

The International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation initiated a continuous review of new, peer-reviewed published cardiopulmonary resuscitation science. This is the fifth annual summary of the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation International Consensus on Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care Science With Treatment Recommendations; a more comprehensive review was done in 2020. This latest summary addresses the most recently published resuscitation evidence reviewed by International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation task force science experts. Topics covered by systematic reviews in this summary include resuscitation topics of video-based dispatch systems; head-up cardiopulmonary resuscitation; early coronary angiography after return of spontaneous circulation; cardiopulmonary resuscitation in the prone patient; cord management at birth for preterm and term infants; devices for administering positive-pressure ventilation at birth; family presence during neonatal resuscitation; self-directed, digitally based basic life support education and training in adults and children; coronavirus disease 2019 infection risk to rescuers from patients in cardiac arrest; and first aid topics, including cooling with water for thermal burns, oral rehydration for exertional dehydration, pediatric tourniquet use, and methods of tick removal. Members from 6 International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation task forces have assessed, discussed, and debated the quality of the evidence, according to the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation criteria, and their statements include consensus treatment recommendations or good practice statements. Insights into the deliberations of the task forces are provided in Justification and Evidence-to-Decision Framework Highlights sections. In addition, the task forces listed priority knowledge gaps for further research.

2020 International Consensus on First Aid Science With Treatment Recommendations.

This is the summary publication of the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation's 2020 International Consensus on First Aid Science With Treatment Recommendations. It addresses the most recent published evidence reviewed by the First Aid Task Force science experts. This summary addresses the topics of first aid methods of glucose administration for hypoglycemia; techniques for cooling of exertional hyperthermia and heatstroke; recognition of acute stroke; the use of supplementary oxygen in acute stroke; early or first aid use of aspirin for chest pain; control of life- threatening bleeding through the use of tourniquets, haemostatic dressings, direct pressure, or pressure devices; the use of a compression wrap for closed extremity joint injuries; and temporary storage of an avulsed tooth. Additional summaries of scoping reviews are presented for the use of a recovery position, recognition of a concussion, and 6 other first aid topics. The First Aid Task Force has assessed, discussed, and debated the certainty of evidence on the basis of Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation criteria and present their consensus treatment recommendations with evidence-to-decision highlights and identified priority knowledge gaps for future research. The 2020 International Consensus on Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) and Emergency Cardiovascular Care (ECC) Science With Treatment Recommendations (CoSTR) is the fourth in a series of annual summary publications from the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation (ILCOR). This 2020 CoSTR for first aid includes new topics addressed by systematic reviews performed within the past 12 months. It also includes updates of the first aid treatment recommendations published from 2010 through 2019 that are based on additional evidence evaluations and updates. As a result, this 2020 CoSTR for first aid represents the most comprehensive update since 2010.

2020 International Consensus on First Aid Science With Treatment Recommendations.

This is the summary publication of the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation's 2020 International Consensus on First Aid Science With Treatment Recommendations. It addresses the most recent published evidence reviewed by the First Aid Task Force science experts. This summary addresses the topics of first aid methods of glucose administration for hypoglycemia; techniques for cooling of exertional hyperthermia and heatstroke; recognition of acute stroke; the use of supplementary oxygen in acute stroke; early or first aid use of aspirin for chest pain; control of life-threatening bleeding through the use of tourniquets, hemostatic dressings, direct pressure, or pressure devices; the use of a compression wrap for closed extremity joint injuries; and temporary storage of an avulsed tooth. Additional summaries of scoping reviews are presented for the use of a recovery position, recognition of a concussion, and 6 other first aid topics. The First Aid Task Force has assessed, discussed, and debated the certainty of evidence on the basis of Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation criteria and present their consensus treatment recommendations with evidence-to-decision highlights and identified priority knowledge gaps for future research.

First aid cooling techniques for heat stroke and exertional hyperthermia: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Heat stroke is an emergent condition characterized by hyperthermia (>40 °C/>104 °F) and nervous system dysregulation. There are two primary etiologies: exertional which occurs during physical activity and non-exertional which occurs during extreme heat events without physical exertion. Left untreated, both may lead to significant morbidity, are considered a special circumstance for cardiac arrest, and cause of mortality. METHODS: We searched Medline, Embase, CINAHL and SPORTDiscus. We used Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) methods and risk of bias assessments to determine the certainty and quality of evidence. We included randomized controlled trials, non-randomized trials, cohort studies and case series of five or more patients that evaluated adults and children with non-exertional or exertional heat stroke or exertional hyperthermia, and any cooling technique applicable to first aid and prehospital settings. Outcomes included: cooling rate, mortality, neurological dysfunction, adverse effects and hospital length of stay. RESULTS: We included 63 studies, of which 37 were controlled studies, two were cohort studies and 24 were case series of heat stroke patients. Water immersion of adults with exertional hyperthermia [cold water (14-17 °C/57.2-62.6 °F), colder water (8-12 °C/48.2-53.6 °F) and ice water (1-5 °C/33.8-41 °F)] resulted in faster cooling rates when compared to passive cooling. No single water temperature range was found to be associated with a quicker core temperature reduction than another (cold, colder or ice). CONCLUSION: Water immersion techniques (using 1-17 °C water) more effectively lowered core body temperatures when compared with passive cooling, in hyperthermic adults. The available evidence suggests water immersion can rapidly reduce core body temperature in settings where it is feasible.

Adherence to a multifactorial fall prevention program following paramedic care: Predictors and impact on falls and health service use. Results from an RCT a priori subgroup analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To identify predictors and impact of adherence to a multifactorial fall-prevention program on falls and health service utilisation. METHODS: Randomised controlled trial with a priori subgroup analysis within intervention group according to adherence. Participants were community dwelling, (≥65 years), not transported to hospital following fall-related paramedic care. The Attitudes to Falls-Related Interventions Scale (AFRIS) was completed at baseline, adherence levels were measured (three-point scale) at six months, and falls and health service utilisation were recorded for 12 months. Multivariate logistic regression and area under the curve were calculated with 95% confidence interval (CI). RESULTS: Attitudes to Falls-Related Interventions Scale scores (n = 85) were independent of baseline characteristics. At six months, 39 (46%) participants reported full adherence. Independent predictors of adherence were positive AFRIS (OR 4.10, 95% CI 1.48-11.39) and receiving 3+ recommendations (OR 3.36, 95% CI 1.26-9.00). Adherers experienced fewer falls (IRR 0.53, 95% CI 0.45-0.80) and fall-related health service use (emergency department presentations IRR 0.37, 95% CI 0.17-0.82) compared to non-adherers. CONCLUSION: Older adults who adhere to recommendations benefit, regardless of fall-risk profile.

Paramedic-performed Fascia Iliaca Compartment Block for Femoral Fractures: A Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Femoral (thigh) fractures are an important clinical problem commonly encountered by paramedics. These injuries are painful, and the need for extrication and transport adds complexity to the management of this condition. Whereas traditional analgesia involves parenteral opioids, regional nerve blockade for femoral fractures have been demonstrated to be effective when performed by physicians. Regional peripheral nerve blockade performed by paramedics may be suitable in the prehospital setting. STUDY OBJECTIVES: To examine the efficacy and feasibility of paramedic-performed fascia iliaca compartment block (FICB) for patients with suspected hip or femur fractures in the prehospital setting compared to intravenous morphine alone. METHODS: Prior to treatment allocation, all patients received a loading dose of morphine intravenously, then received either 1) FICB using lidocaine with epinephrine; or 2) standard care (further intravenous morphine only) in this nonblinded, randomized control trial. Participants rated their pain using a standard 11-point verbal numerical rating scale prior to and 15 min after receiving the allocated treatment. Secondary outcomes included effectiveness at other time points and incidence of adverse effects. RESULTS: We analyzed 11 and 13 patients in the FICB and standard care groups, respectively. Patients treated with FICB had a greater reduction in their median pain score than patients in the standard care group (50% vs. 22%, p = 0.025) after 15 min. In the FICB group, median pain scores decreased by 5 (interquartile range 4-6), compared to 2 (interquartile range 0-4) in the standard care group. The FICB procedure did not significantly impact on scene times. No immediately obvious adverse events were noted in the 11 participants who received FICB from paramedics. CONCLUSION: The study suggests that FICB can be performed by trained paramedics for patients with suspected femoral fractures.

Predictors of nontransport of older fallers who receive ambulance care.

OBJECTIVES: To identify patient, clinical, and operational factors associated with nontransport of older people who have fallen and received ambulance care; and to develop a nontransport prediction tool that could be utilized during the dispatch process to rationalize allocation of emergency ambulance resources. METHODS: The study was a planned subanalysis using data collected during a prospective observational cohort study of nonconsecutive emergency responses to older people aged 65 years or more who had fallen between October 1, 2010 and June 30, 2011. The data consisted of routinely collected ambulance dispatch and clinical records, combined with prospectively collected fall-specific information. Missing data were managed using multiple imputation. Multivariate logistic regression modeling was undertaken to identify predictors of nontransport. Results are described for original and imputated data sets, presented as odds ratios (OR) with 95%CI (confidence interval). Receiver operating curve (ROC) statistics were generated, with model discrimination determined by the area under the curve (AUC). RESULTS: There were 1,484 cases eligible for this subanalysis of which 419 (28.2%) were recorded as nontransport. Multivariate regression including dispatch and clinical variables identified a 6-item final model. Younger age group, nonurgent response priority, and presence of a personal alarm were predictors of nontransport, along with clinical variables, including normal vital signs, absence of injury, and unchanged functional status post-fall. The AUC was 0.88 (95% CI 0.86-0.90; p < 0.0001) (imputed data AUC 0.86 (95% CI 0.84-0.88)). Multivariate modeling of dispatch variables only identified a 3-item final model, which included response nonurgent response priority, younger age, and the presence of a personal alarm. The AUC was 0.68 (95% CI 0.64-0.71; p < 0.0001) (imputed data AUC 0.69 (95% CI 0.66-0.72)). CONCLUSION: In this population of confirmed older fallers attended to by paramedics, determination of the prehospital transport outcome is greatly influenced by on-scene findings resulting from paramedic assessment. The presence of new pain, abnormal physiology, and altered function post-fall were strongly associated with increased odds of transport. Conversely the presence of a personal alarm and allocation of a nonurgent dispatch priority increased the odds of nontransport. Accurate discrimination between older fallers who were and were not transported using dispatch data only was not possible.

Epidemiology of emergency medical service responses to older people who have fallen: a prospective cohort study.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the characteristics of older people who fall and call an emergency ambulance, and the operational and clinical impact of the ambulance responses they receive. METHODS: A prospective cohort study of people aged ≥65 who had fallen and called for an ambulance was conducted between October 1, 2010 and June 30, 2011. Fall-related data were collected using a project-specific data collection tool. These data were then linked to routinely collected ambulance service clinical records and dispatch data, providing a sequential description of fall-related cases from time of ambulance dispatch through to the end of the prehospital episode of care. RESULTS: There were 1,610 cases eligible for analysis. The median response time was 15 minutes (IQR 10-24) and "long-lies" (>60 minutes on the ground) occurred in 13% of cases. Patients were predominantly female (61%) and community dwelling (82%). Forty-four percent had never previously called an ambulance for a fall, whereas 248 (15%) had called within the past month. The most common patient-reported reasons for falling were loss of balance (30%) and "simple trips" (25%). New injury and/or pain was documented for 1,172 (73%) of patients, and 656 (41%) presented with "abnormal" physiology; only 238 (15%) presented with no new injury/pain and normal physiology. The nontransport rate was 28%. CONCLUSION: In this population, ambulance services appear to provide timely responses to older people who have fallen, and "long-lies" are relatively uncommon. More than one-quarter of patients were not transported to an emergency department, and repeat use of ambulance resources appears to be common. Opportunities exist to explore alternate pathways and models of care that maximize outcomes for nontransport patients as well as improving operational efficiency of the ambulance service.

Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation for relieving acute pain in the prehospital setting: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized-controlled trials.

Although medics in many services are equipped with pharmacological analgesia, legislative or logistical restrictions in some systems result in the need to rely on nonpharmacological avenues for the management of acute pain. Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) has been proposed as an alternative to analgesic medication that could be feasible and effective in the prehospital setting. The aim of this systematic review was to determine the effectiveness and safety of TENS when administered by medics to patients with acute pain in the prehospital setting. A systematic literature review was carried out to identify randomized-controlled trials investigating the safety and efficacy of TENS compared with 'sham' (placebo) TENS in the prehospital setting. Quality assessment of included studies was carried out to identify potential for bias. Qualitative and quantitative synthesis of results was performed to determine effectiveness and safety. The studies included were meta-analysed using a random-effects model to produce pooled results for comparison of the mean post-treatment pain scores using a visual analogue scale (VAS). Four studies were included in the analysis, all of which were prospective clinical trials of good methodological quality. Meta-analysis indicated that TENS produced a clinically significant reduction in severity of pain [mean VAS reduction 38 mm (95% confidence interval 28-44); P<0.0001] for patients with moderate-to-severe acute pain. TENS produced post-treatment mean pain scores that were significantly lower than 'sham' TENS [33 mm VAS (95% confidence interval 21-44); P<0.0001]. TENS was also effective in reducing acute anxiety secondary to pain. No safety risks were identified. When administered by medics in the prehospital setting to patients with acute pain, TENS appears to be an effective and safe nonpharmacological analgesic modality that should be considered by emergency medical services organizations in which pharmacological pain management is restricted or unavailable.

Epidemiology of ambulance responses to older people who have fallen in New South Wales, Australia.

AIM: To quantify the size and scope of the operational burden for a large ambulance service arising from older people who have fallen and to describe this population. METHODS: Retrospective analysis of ambulance records from New South Wales, Australia for emergency calls classified as 'falls' in the period 1 July 2008 to 30 June 2009. RESULTS: There were 42 331 responses to people aged 65 years or older, constituting 5.1% of total emergency workload. The median age of patients was 83 (interquartile range 76-87) and 62% were women. The transport rate was 76%. Transport to hospital was more likely during the day (odds ratio (OR) 1.8, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.7-1.9) and on weekends (OR 1.06, 95%CI 1.0-1.1). CONCLUSION: Falls by older people constitute approximately 5% of all emergency responses, of which one quarter are not transported to emergency department (ED) after paramedic assessment. Increasing the sophistication of ambulance dispatch processes to older people who have fallen, and continuing with the development of new models of care aimed at decreasing unnecessary transports to the EDs, should be a priority when planning ambulance service delivery for older people who have fallen.

Provision of out-of-hospital analgesia to older fallers with suspected fractures: above par, but opportunities for improvement exist.

OBJECTIVES: Paramedics frequently attend older patients who have fallen and sustained suspected fractures, a population of patients who may be at risk of inadequate analgesic care. This prospective study aimed to describe the rate and effectiveness of analgesia administered by paramedics to older patients with suspected fractures secondary to falls and to identify predictive factors associated with provision of analgesia. METHODS: A cohort of older patients aged greater than 65 years with suspected fall-related fractures was extracted from a database of 1,610 cases collected during a prospective, nonconsecutive observational study of older people who had fallen and received an ambulance response from October 1, 2010, through June 30, 2011. Fall-specific data, collected on scene by paramedics using a specially designed data form, were linked to patient clinical records and dispatch information. Descriptive analyses were performed to describe rates and effectiveness of analgesic administration, and multivariate logistic regression was conducted to identify factors associated with provision of analgesia. RESULTS: Of 1,610 patients in the observational study database, there were 333 patients identified as having suspected fractures, thus forming the study population. The mean (±SD) age was 82 (±8) years, and 75% were female. Suspected fractures of the hip were most common (42%). An initial pain score was recorded in 67% of cases, and the median initial pain severity was 8 of 10 (interquartile range [IQR] = 5 to 9). Overall, 60% received analgesia, and 80% of those received parenteral opiates. Intravenous (IV) morphine was most common (63%), followed by methoxyflurane (39%) and intranasal fentanyl (17%). Administration of oral analgesics was uncommon. Analgesia was considered to be clinically effective (≥30% relative reduction in pain severity) in 62% of cases. Patients with suspected hip fractures had greater odds of receiving analgesia compared to those with suspected fractures at other anatomical sites (odds ratio [OR] = 2.7, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.17 to 6.32; p = 0.02). Compared to those with mild pain, the odds of receiving analgesia increased significantly for patients with moderate pain (OR = 6.5, 95% CI = 2.3 to 18.8; p < 0.0001) and severe pain (OR = 31.1, 95% CI = 9.9 to 97.6; p < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: In this population of older people who fell and sustained suspected fractures, two-thirds received paramedic-administered analgesia. The majority of patients received clinically effective analgesia, and the presence of a suspected hip fracture increased the likelihood of receiving pain relief.

Intervention to prevent further falls in older people who call an ambulance as a result of a fall: a protocol for the iPREFER randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: An increasing number of falls result in an emergency call and the subsequent dispatch of paramedics. In the absence of physical injury, abnormal physiological parameters or change in usual functional status, it could be argued that routine conveyance by ambulance to the Emergency Department (ED) is not the most effective or efficient use of resources. Further, it is likely that non-conveyed older fallers have the potential to benefit from timely access to fall risk assessment and intervention. The aim of this randomised controlled trial is to evaluate the effect of a timely and tailored falls assessment and management intervention on the number of subsequent falls and fall-related injuries for non-conveyed older fallers. METHODS: Community dwelling people aged 65 years or older who are not conveyed to the ED following a fall will be eligible to be visited at home by a research physiotherapist. Consenting participants will receive individualised intervention strategies based on risk factors identified at baseline. All pre-test measures will be assessed prior to randomisation. Post-test measures will be undertaken by a researcher blinded to group allocation 6 months post-baseline. Participants in the intervention group will receive individualised pro-active fall prevention strategies from the clinical researcher to ensure that risk factors are addressed adequately and interventions carried out. The primary outcome measure will be the number of falls recorded by a falls diary over a 12 month period. Secondary outcome measures assessed six months after baseline will include the subsequent use of medical and emergency services and uptake of recommendations. Data will be analysed using the intention-to-treat principle. DISCUSSION: As there is currently little evidence regarding the effectiveness or feasibility of alternate models of care following ambulance non-conveyance of older fallers, there is a need to explore assessment and intervention programs to help reduce subsequent falls, related injuries and subsequent use of health care services. By linking existing services rather than setting up new services, this pragmatic trial aims to utilise the health care system in an efficient and timely manner. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry: ACTRN 12611000503921.

What causes adverse events in prehospital care? A human-factors approach.

BACKGROUND: The last decade has seen a vast amount of work directed at the investigation of patient harm events. Unfortunately, little of it has pertained to prehospital care and as such, risk remains unquantified and poorly understood in this setting. We hypothesised that adverse patient events occurring during the prehospital phase may fall into discernible patterns, and that an understanding of these patterns would be valuable in the development of mitigation strategies. METHODS: A survey tool was developed with reference to the human factors literature. Paramedics in a large Australian ambulance service were asked to recall an adverse event and to nominate factors that may have contributed to its occurrence. Responses were analysed using principal components analysis in order to identify contributory factors that could be statistically grouped together in meaningful patterns. RESULTS: The survey yielded 370 responses. Eight key single contributors and 14 groups of contributory factors were identified. Of the groups, only two were strongly associated with serious patient outcomes, such as reported significant deterioration or death. CONCLUSIONS: The deteriorating patient was identified as the leading single contributor to prehospital adverse events, and two perfect storm patient harm scenarios were found to contribute materially to adverse outcomes. This approach to identifying both single factors contributing to an incident and factors which could be grouped together in a pattern, appears useful in delineating risk in the acute prehospital setting, and warrants further exploration in this and other areas of patient safety.

Beliefs and expectations of paramedics towards evidence-based practice and research.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this cross-sectional online survey was to better understand the beliefs of paramedics towards research and evidence-based practice and their expectations regarding its impact on their ability to provide patient care. METHODS: An online survey of frontline paramedical staff in New South Wales, Australia, was conducted in March, 2010. Paramedics were asked to respond to five questions relating to their beliefs and expectations relating to prehospital research and evidence-based practice, using a four-point Likert scale for each. Descriptive statistics are used to describe responses to survey questions. Tests for trend between nominal and ordinal explanatory variables and ordinal survey responses were performed using χ(2) statistics. RESULTS: There were 892 responses to the survey throughout the 1-month study period. The vast majority of paramedics believed prehospital research and paramedic participation in research were very important. Ninety per cent believed prehospital research would improve patient care, while 92% reported being likely to change clinical practice as a result of prehospital evidence. Paramedics with shorter lengths of service and those with tertiary education were significantly more supportive of, and had higher expectations of, research and evidence-based practice. CONCLUSIONS: Paramedics who responded to this online survey appear to have generally positive expectations of and perceptions towards evidence-based practice and research and their impact on prehospital care. Tertiary education and shorter length of service were associated with more positive expectations of, and higher level of support for, evidence-based practice.