Synthetic data sets for the identification of key ingredients for RNA-seq differential analysis.

Numerous statistical pipelines are now available for the differential analysis of gene expression measured with RNA-sequencing technology. Most of them are based on similar statistical frameworks after normalization, differing primarily in the choice of data distribution, mean and variance estimation strategy and data filtering. We propose an evaluation of the impact of these choices when few biological replicates are available through the use of synthetic data sets. This framework is based on real data sets and allows the exploration of various scenarios differing in the proportion of non-differentially expressed genes. Hence, it provides an evaluation of the key ingredients of the differential analysis, free of the biases associated with the simulation of data using parametric models. Our results show the relevance of a proper modeling of the mean by using linear or generalized linear modeling. Once the mean is properly modeled, the impact of the other parameters on the performance of the test is much less important. Finally, we propose to use the simple visualization of the raw P-value histogram as a practical evaluation criterion of the performance of differential analysis methods on real data sets.

A TILLING Platform for Functional Genomics in Brachypodium distachyon.

The new model plant for temperate grasses, Brachypodium distachyon offers great potential as a tool for functional genomics. We have established a sodium azide-induced mutant collection and a TILLING platform, called "BRACHYTIL", for the inbred line Bd21-3. The TILLING collection consists of DNA isolated from 5530 different families. Phenotypes were reported and organized in a phenotypic tree that is freely available online. The tilling platform was validated by the isolation of mutants for seven genes belonging to multigene families of the lignin biosynthesis pathway. In particular, a large allelic series for BdCOMT6, a caffeic acid O-methyl transferase was identified. Some mutants show lower lignin content when compared to wild-type plants as well as a typical decrease of syringyl units, a hallmark of COMT-deficient plants. The mutation rate was estimated at one mutation per 396 kb, or an average of 680 mutations per line. The collection was also used to assess the Genetically Effective Cell Number that was shown to be at least equal to 4 cells in Brachypodium distachyon. The mutant population and the TILLING platform should greatly facilitate functional genomics approaches in this model organism.

Nuclear retention of the transcription factor NLP7 orchestrates the early response to nitrate in plants.

Nitrate is both an important nutrient and a signalling molecule for plants. Although several components of the nitrate signalling pathway have been identified, their hierarchical organization remains unclear. Here we show that the localization of NLP7, a member of the RWP-RK transcription factor family, is regulated by nitrate via a nuclear retention mechanism. Genome-wide analyses revealed that NLP7 binds and modulates a majority of known nitrate signalling and assimilation genes. Our findings indicate that plants, like fungi and mammals, rely on similar nuclear retention mechanisms to instantaneously respond to the availability of key nutrients.

Disruption of Bcchs4, Bcchs6 or Bcchs7 chitin synthase genes in Botrytis cinerea and the essential role of class VI chitin synthase (Bcchs6).

Chitin synthases play critical roles in hyphal development and fungal pathogenicity. Previous studies on Botrytis cinerea, a model organism for necrotrophic pathogens, have shown that disruption of Bcchs1 and more particularly Bcchs3a genes have a drastic impact on virulence (Soulié et al., 2003, 2006). In this work, we investigate the role of other CHS including BcCHS4, BcCHS6 and BcCHS7 during the life cycle of B. cinerea. Single deletions of corresponding genes were carried out. Phenotypic analysis indicates that: (i) BcCHS4 enzyme is not essential for development and pathogenicity of the fungus; (ii) BcCHS7 is required for pathogenicity in a host dependant manner. For Bcchs6 gene disruption, we obtained only heterokaryotic strains. Indeed, sexual or asexual purification assays were unsuccessful. We concluded that class VI chitin synthase could be essential for B. cinerea and therefore BcCHS6 represents a valuable antifungal target.

Histone H2B monoubiquitination facilitates the rapid modulation of gene expression during Arabidopsis photomorphogenesis.

Profiling of DNA and histone modifications has recently allowed the establishment of reference epigenomes from several model organisms. This identified a major chromatin state for active genes that contains monoubiquitinated H2B (H2Bub), a mark linked to transcription elongation. However, assessment of dynamic chromatin changes during the reprogramming of gene expression in response to extrinsic or developmental signals has been more difficult. Here we used the major developmental switch that Arabidopsis thaliana plants undergo upon their initial perception of light, known as photomorphogenesis, as a paradigm to assess spatial and temporal dynamics of monoubiquitinated H2B (H2Bub) and its impact on transcriptional responses. The process involves rapid and extensive transcriptional reprogramming and represents a developmental window well suited to studying cell division-independent chromatin changes. Genome-wide H2Bub distribution was determined together with transcriptome profiles at three time points during early photomorphogenesis. This revealed de novo marking of 177 genes upon the first hour of illumination, illustrating the dynamic nature of H2Bub enrichment in a genomic context. Gene upregulation was associated with H2Bub enrichment, while H2Bub levels generally remained stable during gene downregulation. We further report that H2Bub influences the modulation of gene expression, as both gene up- and downregulation were globally weaker in hub1 mutant plants that lack H2Bub. H2Bub-dependent regulation notably impacted genes with fast and transient light induction, and several circadian clock components whose mRNA levels are tightly regulated by sharp oscillations. Based on these findings, we propose that H2B monoubiquitination is part of a transcription-coupled, chromatin-based mechanism to rapidly modulate gene expression.

Interaction between the bHLH transcription factor FIT and ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE3/ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE3-LIKE1 reveals molecular linkage between the regulation of iron acquisition and ethylene signaling in Arabidopsis.

Understanding the regulation of key genes involved in plant iron acquisition is of crucial importance for breeding of micronutrient-enriched crops. The basic helix-loop-helix protein FER-LIKE FE DEFICIENCY-INDUCED TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR (FIT), a central regulator of Fe acquisition in roots, is regulated by environmental cues and internal requirements for iron at the transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels. The plant stress hormone ethylene promotes iron acquisition, but the molecular basis for this remained unknown. Here, we demonstrate a direct molecular link between ethylene signaling and FIT. We identified ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE3 (EIN3) and ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE3-LIKE1 (EIL1) in a screen for direct FIT interaction partners and validated their physical interaction in planta. We demonstrate that the ein3 eil1 transcriptome was affected to a greater extent upon iron deficiency than normal iron compared with the wild type. Ethylene signaling by way of EIN3/EIL1 was required for full-level FIT accumulation. FIT levels were reduced upon application of aminoethoxyvinylglycine and in the ein3 eil1 background. MG132 could restore FIT levels. We propose that upon ethylene signaling, FIT is less susceptible to proteasomal degradation, presumably due to a physical interaction between FIT and EIN3/EIL1. Increased FIT abundance then leads to the high level of expression of genes required for Fe acquisition. This way, ethylene is one of the signals that triggers Fe deficiency responses at the transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels.

Disruption of LACCASE4 and 17 results in tissue-specific alterations to lignification of Arabidopsis thaliana stems.

Peroxidases have been shown to be involved in the polymerization of lignin precursors, but it remains unclear whether laccases (EC 1.10.3.2) participate in constitutive lignification. We addressed this issue by studying laccase T-DNA insertion mutants in Arabidopsis thaliana. We identified two genes, LAC4 and LAC17, which are strongly expressed in stems. LAC17 was mainly expressed in the interfascicular fibers, whereas LAC4 was expressed in vascular bundles and interfascicular fibers. We produced two double mutants by crossing the LAC17 (lac17) mutant with two LAC4 mutants (lac4-1 and lac4-2). The single and double mutants grew normally in greenhouse conditions. The single mutants had moderately low lignin levels, whereas the stems of lac4-1 lac17 and lac4-2 lac17 mutants had lignin contents that were 20 and 40% lower than those of the control, respectively. These lower lignin levels resulted in higher saccharification yields. Thioacidolysis revealed that disrupting LAC17 principally affected the deposition of G lignin units in the interfascicular fibers and that complementation of lac17 with LAC17 restored a normal lignin profile. This study provides evidence that both LAC4 and LAC17 contribute to the constitutive lignification of Arabidopsis stems and that LAC17 is involved in the deposition of G lignin units in fibers.

Transcriptome analysis of ein3 eil1 mutants in response to iron deficiency.

Multiple transcriptome and proteome studies indicated that the micronutrient deficiency stress caused by lack of iron results in increased molecular responses for the mobilization and uptake of iron and also in altered metabolic adaptation and stress responses. Recently, we identified the ethylene-regulated transcription factors ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE3 (EIN3) and EIN3-LIKE1 (EIL1) as protein interaction partners of the Fe deficiency response regulator and transcription factor FER-LIKE FE DEFINCY-INDUCED TRANSCRPTION FACTOR1 (FIT). EIN3/EIL1 contribute to high level gene expression of FIT downstream genes and also promote FIT protein abundance. Transcriptome analyses showed that more genes were differentially regulated in ein3 eil1 mutants versus wild type upon iron deficiency than upon sufficient iron supply. Moreover, several of the differentially expressed genes are implicated in photo-oxidative stress responses in leaves. We therefore speculated that by enhancing Fe uptake through interaction with FIT and by re-organizing the photo-oxidative stress responses, EIN3/EIL1 might contribute to decreasing photo-oxidative stress that may occur under light conditions in response to Fe deficiency. Here, we present an additional analysis of our previously published transcriptome data of ein3 eil1 and wild type between sufficient iron supply and iron deficiency, respectively.