Identifying the science and technology dimensions of emerging public policy issues through horizon scanning.

Public policy requires public support, which in turn implies a need to enable the public not just to understand policy but also to be engaged in its development. Where complex science and technology issues are involved in policy making, this takes time, so it is important to identify emerging issues of this type and prepare engagement plans. In our horizon scanning exercise, we used a modified Delphi technique. A wide group of people with interests in the science and policy interface (drawn from policy makers, policy adviser, practitioners, the private sector and academics) elicited a long list of emergent policy issues in which science and technology would feature strongly and which would also necessitate public engagement as policies are developed. This was then refined to a short list of top priorities for policy makers. Thirty issues were identified within broad areas of business and technology; energy and environment; government, politics and education; health, healthcare, population and aging; information, communication, infrastructure and transport; and public safety and national security.

Salmonella typhimurium infection triggers dendritic cells and macrophages to adopt distinct migration patterns in vivo.

The presence of an anti-bacterial T cell response and evidence of bacterial products in inflamed joints of reactive arthritis patients suggests an antigen transportation role in this disease for macrophages and dendritic cells. We have investigated the functional properties and in vivo migration of macrophages and DC after infection with Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. typhimurium). BM-derived macrophages and DC displayed enhanced expression of costimulatory molecules (CD40 and CD86) and increased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-alpha, IL-6 and IL-12p40) and nitric oxide after infection. Upon adoptive transfer into mice, infected DC migrated to lymphoid tissues and induced an anti-Salmonella T cell response, whereas infected macrophages did not. Infection of DC with S. typhimurium was associated with strong up-regulation of the chemokine receptor CCR7 and acquisition of responsiveness to chemokines acting through this receptor. Moreover, S. typhimurium-infected CCR7-deficient DC were unable to migrate to lymph nodes after adoptive transfer, although they did reach the spleen. Our data demonstrate distinct roles for macrophages and DC as antigen transporters after S. typhimurium infection and a dependence on CCR7 for migration of DC to lymph nodes after bacterial infection.

HLA-B27 heavy chain homodimers are expressed in HLA-B27 transgenic rodent models of spondyloarthritis and are ligands for paired Ig-like receptors.

HLA-B27 transgenic rats and strains of HLA-B27-transgenic beta(2)-microglobulin (beta(2)m)-deficient mice develop a multisystem inflammatory disease affecting the joints, skin, and bowel with strong similarity to human spondyloarthritis. We show that HLA-B27 transgenic mice and rats express HC10-reactive, beta(2)m-free HLA-B27 homodimers (B27(2)) and multimers, both intracellularly and at the cell surface of leukocytes, including rat dendritic cells. Fluorescent-labeled tetrameric complexes of HLA-B27 homodimers (B27(2) tetramers) bind to populations of lymphocytes, monocytes, and dendritic cells. The murine (and probably rat) paired Ig-like receptors (PIRs) are ligands for B27(2). Thus, B27(2) tetramers stain RBL cells transfected with murine activating PIR-A4 and inhibitory PIR-B receptors. Murine PIR-A and -B can be immunoprecipitated from the RAW264.7 macrophage cell line, and murine PIR-A can be immunoprecipitated from the J774.A1 line using B27(2). B27(2) tetramer staining corresponds to the distribution of PIR expression on lymphoid and myeloid cells and on murine macrophage cell lines. B27(2) can induce TNF-alpha release from the J774.A1 macrophage cell line. The binding of B27(2) to PIR is inhibited by HC10, an mAb that ameliorates arthritis in HLA-B27(+) beta(2)m(-/-) mice. The expression and PIR recognition of B27(2) could explain the pathogenesis of rodent spondyloarthritis.

Fully functional HLA B27-restricted CD4+ as well as CD8+ T cell responses in TCR transgenic mice.

The strong association of HLA B27 with spondyloarthropathies contrasts strikingly with most autoimmune diseases, which are HLA class II associated and thought to be mediated by CD4+ T lymphocytes. By introducing a human-derived HLA B27-restricted TCR into HLA B27 transgenic mice, we have obtained a functional TCR transgenic model, GRb, dependent on HLA B27 for response. Surprisingly, HLA B27 supported CD4+ as well as CD8+ T cell responses in vivo and in vitro. Further, HLA B27-restricted CD4+ T cells were capable of differentiation into a range of Th1 and Th2 T cell subsets with normal patterns of cytokine expression. The transgenic T cells were also able to enhance clearance of recombinant vaccinia virus containing influenza nucleoprotein in vivo. This is the first description of a human HLA class I-restricted TCR transgenic line. The existence of CD4+ MHC class I-restricted T cells has significant implications for immune regulation in autoimmunity and, in particular, in HLA B27-associated arthritis. We believe that this model provides a novel system for the study of unusual T cell behavior in vivo.

Cytotoxic T lymphocytes recognize and lyse chondrocytes under inflammatory, but not non-inflammatory conditions.

The human major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I allele HLA-B27 is strongly associated with seronegative spondyloarthropathies including ankylosing spondylitis and reactive arthritis. Although of unknown aetiology, one hypothesis suggests that a cytotoxic T cell (CTL) response against a self-antigen at sites of inflammation, such as entheses or joints may be involved. The chondrocyte is one of the major specialized cell types found both in articular cartilage and cartilaginous entheses and therefore is a possible source of such an antigen. CTL recognition of these cells is a potential mechanism for inflammation and cartilage damage, both through direct lysis of chondrocytes and the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumour necrosis factor and interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma). We test the feasibility of this hypothesis by examining the ability of chondrocytes to present antigen to CTL in vitro. Chondrocytes isolated from the ribcages of mice did not constitutively express detectable levels of MHC class I by fluorescence-activated cell sorting analysis. In addition, they were resistant to lysis by alloreactive and influenza A virus nucleoprotein (NP)-specific CTL. However, treatment of chondrocytes with IFN-gamma up-regulated MHC class I expression and rendered the cells susceptible to lysis by CTL. Similarly, IFN-gamma-treated chondrocytes infected with influenza A virus were recognized by NP-specific CTL, though with variable efficiency. Thus, we suggest that under certain circumstances CTL-mediated lysis of chondrocytes is potentially a potent mechanism for cartilage damage in vivo, but that low levels of MHC class I on healthy chondrocytes protects from immune recognition in health.