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COVID-19 , Dermatología , Epidemias , Enfermedades Cutáneas Virales , Humanos , SARS-CoV-2RESUMEN
Approaching the mechanisms related to false positives HIV rapid diagnostic tests (RDT) in patients with sleeping sickness may help to improve the accuracy of screening for HIV infection in areas endemic for Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT).We report on a patient from Congo who was managed like an AIDS-associated meningoencephalitis, based on a false positive HIV RDT at admission, and eventually received a diagnosis of sleeping sickness. A further retrospective cohort study performed in patients with HAT shows that most of positive HIV RDT obtained prior to treatment for sleeping sickness are false positives. We found that half of them were cleared at the end of treatment course, suggesting an early clearance of some antibodies involved in cross-reactivity.A substantial clearance of HIV RDT false positives occurs during therapy for HAT. In areas where Elisa HIV tests are not readily available, repeating the HIV RDT at the end of therapy may help to identify roughly half of false positives.
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Infecciones por VIH , Tripanosomiasis Africana , Animales , Pruebas Diagnósticas de Rutina , Infecciones por VIH/complicaciones , Humanos , Tamizaje Masivo , Estudios Retrospectivos , Tripanosomiasis Africana/diagnósticoRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Acral lesions, mainly chilblains, are the most frequently reported cutaneous lesions associated with COVID-19. In more than 80% of patients tested, nasopharyngeal swabs were negative on reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) for SARS-CoV-2 when performed, and serology was generally not performed. METHODS: A national survey was launched on 30 March 2020 by the French Society of Dermatology asking physicians to report cases of skin manifestations in patients with suspected or confirmed COVID-19 by using a standardized questionnaire. We report the results for acral manifestations. RESULTS: We collected 311 cases of acral manifestations [58.5% women, median age 25.7 years (range 18-39)]. The most frequent clinical presentation (65%) was typical chilblains. In total, 93 cases (30%) showed clinical suspicion of COVID-19, 67 (22%) had only less specific infectious symptoms and 151 (49%) had no clinical signs preceding or during the course of acral lesions. Histology of skin biopsies was consistent with chilblains. Overall, 12 patients showed significant immunological abnormalities. Of the 150 (48%) patients who were tested, 10 patients were positive. Seven of 121 (6%) RT-PCR-tested patients were positive for SARS-CoV-2, and five of 75 (7%) serology-tested patients had IgG anti-SARS-CoV-2. Tested/untested patients or those with/without confirmed COVID-19 did not differ in age, sex, history or acral lesion clinical characteristics. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this survey do not rule out that SARS-CoV-2 could be directly responsible for some cases of chilblains, but we found no evidence of SARS-CoV-2 infection in the large majority of patients with acral lesions during the COVID-19 lockdown period in France. What is already known about this topic? About 1000 cases of acral lesions, mainly chilblains, were reported during the COVID-19 outbreak. Chilblains were reported to occur in young people within 2 weeks of infectious signs, which were mild when present. Most cases did not have COVID-19 confirmed by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and few serology results were available. What does this study add? Among 311 patients with acral lesions, mainly chilblains, during the COVID-19 lockdown period in France, the majority of patients tested had no evidence of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Overall, 70 of 75 patients were seronegative for SARS-Cov-2 serology and 114 of 121 patients were negative for SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR.
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Betacoronavirus/aislamiento & purificación , Eritema Pernio/diagnóstico , Infecciones por Coronavirus/epidemiología , Neumonía Viral/epidemiología , Adolescente , Adulto , Betacoronavirus/genética , Betacoronavirus/inmunología , Biopsia , COVID-19 , Prueba de COVID-19 , Eritema Pernio/sangre , Eritema Pernio/inmunología , Eritema Pernio/patología , Técnicas de Laboratorio Clínico , Infecciones por Coronavirus/complicaciones , Infecciones por Coronavirus/diagnóstico , Infecciones por Coronavirus/inmunología , Infecciones por Coronavirus/virología , Femenino , Francia/epidemiología , Humanos , Masculino , Pandemias , Neumonía Viral/complicaciones , Neumonía Viral/inmunología , Neumonía Viral/virología , Reacción en Cadena de la Polimerasa , ARN Viral/aislamiento & purificación , SARS-CoV-2 , Pruebas Serológicas , Piel/patología , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Early detection of melanoma constitutes a major challenge and is a common reason for dermatological consultations. There is no recent data on melanomas diagnosed in the private medical sector in France, nor on the circumstances of diagnosis. PATIENTS AND METHODS: This was a retrospective observational study on records collating data on all new consecutive cases of melanoma diagnosed between January 2015 and June 2018, in the private sector only, by volunteer dermatologists belonging to the association for continuing medical education, "Dermatologie Paris XV". A data collection sheet was prepared on which to record information about the dermatologist, the patient, the main complaint, the characteristics of the melanoma, and the initial treatment given, using the computerized list provided by our dermatopathology offices. RESULTS: The study involved 383 cases of melanoma, 37% in situ and 63% invasive, which consisted chiefly of superficial spreading melanoma. The median age of the cohort was 61 years and patients were predominantly female (58%). Follow-up of high-risk patients and complete routine examination (in those consulting for another reason) resulted in direct detection by a dermatologist of 202 of the 383 melanomas (52.7%); these melanomas had a lower median Breslow index than the rest of the cohort and were thin in the main. When patients consulted for a suspect lesion (139 cases), the lesion had been identified mostly by either the patient or by a relative (61% of cases). The decision to consult was made chiefly by the patients themselves, and the Breslow index was thicker. An initial consultation for nevus screening resulted in diagnosis of 42 melanomas, i.e. only 11% of the cohort. Dermoscopy was performed by 92% of the dermatologists participating in the study. Melanoma excision was performed in the office by the practitioner in 75% of cases, and management was validated at multidisciplinary meetings in 65% of cases. CONCLUSION: In terms of French primary care, dermatologists in private practice play a key role in ensuring early detection and initial management of melanoma.
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Melanoma , Nevo Pigmentado , Neoplasias Cutáneas , Dermatólogos , Femenino , Humanos , Recién Nacido , Melanoma/diagnóstico , Melanoma/epidemiología , Práctica Privada , Neoplasias Cutáneas/diagnóstico , Neoplasias Cutáneas/epidemiologíaRESUMEN
Thermochemolysis of seven nucleobases-adenine, thymine, uracil, cytosine, guanine, xanthine, and hypoxanthine-in tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAH) was studied individually by pyrolysis gas chromatography mass spectrometry in the frame of the Mars surface exploration. The analyses were performed under conditions relevant to the Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) instrument of the Mars Curiosity Rover and the Mars Organic Molecule Analyzer (MOMA) instrument of the ExoMars Rover. The thermochemolysis products of each nucleobase were identified and the reaction mechanisms studied. The thermochemolysis temperature was optimized and the limit of detection and quantification of each nucleobase were also investigated. Results indicate that 600°C is the optimal thermochemolysis temperature for all seven nucleobases. The methylated products trimethyl-adenine, 1, 3-dimethyl-thymine, 1, 3-dimethyl-uracil, trimethyl-cytosine, 1, 3, 7-trimethyl-xanthine (caffeine), and dimethyl-hypoxanthine, respectively, are the most stable forms of adenine, thymine, uracil, cytosine, guanine, and xanthine, and hypoxanthine in TMAH solutions. The limits of detection for adenine, thymine, and uracil were 0.075â¯nmol; the limits of detection for guanine, cytosine, and hypoxanthine were higher, at 0.40, 0.55, and 0.75â¯nmol, respectively. These experiments allowed to well constrain the analytical capabilities of the thermochemolysis experiments that will be performed on Mars to detect nucleobases.
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Purinas/análisis , Pirimidinonas/análisis , Cromatografía de Gases y Espectrometría de Masas , Calor , Límite de Detección , Marte , Purinas/química , Pirimidinonas/química , Pirólisis , Vuelo Espacial/instrumentaciónRESUMEN
OBJECTIVES: To describe the use, effectiveness and tolerance of high-flow oxygen therapy in dyspnoeic dogs. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Prospectively, dogs in acute respiratory distress admitted to an intensive care unit between January and May 2018 that failed to respond to nasal oxygen therapy and medical stabilisation after 30 minutes were transitioned to high-flow oxygen therapy. High-flow oxygen therapy, delivered an inspired oxygen fraction of 100% using an air/oxygen blender, active humidifier, single warmed tube and specific nasal cannula. Respiratory rate, pulse oximetry (SpO2 ), heart rate and a tolerance score were assessed every 15 minutes from T0 (under nasal oxygen) to 1 hour (T60 ), and PaO2 and PaCO2 at T0 and T60 . Complications were recorded for each dog. RESULTS: Eleven dogs were included. At T60 , PaO2 , flow rate and SpO2 were significantly greater than at T0 (171 ± 123 versus 73 ± 24 mmHg; P=0.015; 18 ±12 L/minute versus 3.2 ± 2.0 L/minute, P<0.01; 97.7 ±2.3% versus 91.6 ±7.2%, P=0.03, respectively). There was no significant difference in PaCO2 , respiratory rate or heart rate between T0 and T60 . Tolerance was excellent, and there were no complications. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: High-flow oxygen therapy improves markers of oxygenation in dyspnoeic dogs and is an effective means to deliver oxygen with comfort and minimal complications.
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Oximetría/veterinaria , Terapia por Inhalación de Oxígeno/veterinaria , Animales , Cánula , Oxígeno , Proyectos Piloto , Estudios ProspectivosRESUMEN
The bacterial cell wall is in part composed of the peptidoglycan (PG) layer that maintains the cell shape and sustains the basic cellular processes of growth and division. The cell wall of Gram-positive bacteria also carries teichoic acids (TAs). In this work, we investigated how TAs contribute to the structuration of the PG network through the modulation of PG hydrolytic enzymes in the context of the Gram-positive Streptococcus pneumoniae bacterium. Pneumococcal TAs are decorated by phosphorylcholine residues which serve as anchors for the Choline-Binding Proteins, some of them acting as PG hydrolases, like the major autolysin LytA. Their binding is non covalent and reversible, a property that allows easy manipulation of the system. In this work, we show that the release of LytA occurs independently from its amidase activity. Furthermore, LytA fused to GFP was expressed in pneumococcal cells and showed different localization patterns according to the growth phase. Importantly, we demonstrate that TAs modulate the enzymatic activity of LytA since a low level of TAs present at the cell surface triggers LytA sensitivity in growing pneumococcal cells. We previously developed a method to label nascent TAs in live cells revealing that the insertion of TAs into the cell wall occurs at the mid-cell. In conclusion, we demonstrate that nascent TAs inserted in the cell wall at the division site are the specific receptors of LytA, tuning in this way the positioning of LytA at the appropriate place at the cell surface.
RESUMEN
Propargyl-choline was efficiently incorporated into teichoic acid (TA) polymers on the surface of Streptococcus pneumoniae. The introduction of a fluorophore by click chemistry enabled sufficient labeling of the pneumococcus, as well as its specific detection when mixed with other bacterial species. The labeling is localized at the septal site, suggesting a similar location of the TA and peptidoglycan (PG) synthetic machineries. This method is a unique opportunity to improve our understanding of the spatial location of pneumococcal TA biosynthesis.
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Alquinos/química , Colina/análogos & derivados , Química Clic , Coloración y Etiquetado , Streptococcus pneumoniae/química , Ácidos Teicoicos/análisis , Alquinos/síntesis química , Colina/síntesis química , Colina/química , Fluorescencia , Estructura Molecular , Streptococcus pneumoniae/citologíaRESUMEN
Unusual intramolecular cross-links present in adhesins from Gram-positive bacteria have been used to develop a generic process amenable to biotechnology applications. Based on the crystal structure of RrgA, the Streptococcus pneumoniae pilus adhesin, we provide evidence that two engineered protein fragments retain their ability to associate covalently with high specificity, in vivo and in vitro, once isolated from the parent protein. We determined the optimal conditions for the assembly of the complex and we solved its crystal structure at 2 Å. Furthermore, we demonstrate biotechnological applications related to antibody production, nanoassembly and cell-surface labeling based on this process we named Bio Molecular Welding.
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Adhesinas Bacterianas/química , Adhesinas Bacterianas/genética , Adhesinas Bacterianas/metabolismo , Proteínas Bacterianas/química , Proteínas Bacterianas/genética , Proteínas Bacterianas/metabolismo , Catálisis , Proteínas Fimbrias/química , Proteínas Fimbrias/genética , Proteínas Fimbrias/metabolismo , Modelos Moleculares , Peso Molecular , Complejos Multiproteicos/química , Complejos Multiproteicos/metabolismo , Unión Proteica , Conformación Proteica , Proteínas Recombinantes de Fusión , Espectrometría de Masa por Ionización de Electrospray , Factores de Virulencia/química , Factores de Virulencia/genética , Factores de Virulencia/metabolismoRESUMEN
AIMS: To assess the value of cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) using phase-contrast velocity mapping for paravalvular aortic regurgitation (PAR) quantification. METHODS AND RESULTS: All patients undergoing transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI) in our centre between November 2012 and August 2013, without CMR-contraindication were included. PAR severity was assessed 5 days after TAVI using: transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) and CMR [regurgitant volume (RV), regurgitant fraction (RF)]. Aortic regurgitation (AR) index was obtained during TAVI. Thirty of 51 patients who underwent TAVI were included (COREVALVE, n = 10; or EDWARDS SAPIEN XT, n = 20). At TTE, PAR was mild in 22, moderate in 3, and severe in 5 patients. Reliable phase-contrast images were acquired at the sino-tubular junction for SAPIEN and at the tubular portion of the ascending aorta for COREVALVE. The reproducibility of CMR was high (coefficient of correlation = 0.99 for intra- and inter-operator variability). At CMR, RV, and RF were significantly (P < 0.0005) correlated with AR severity at TTE, with mean RF values at 9.2 ± 7.6% in mild, 20.3 ± 4.2% in moderate, and 46.8 ± 10.8% in severe PAR. A cut-off value of RF < 14% at CMR accurately discriminated mild from moderate/severe (sensitivity: 100%, specificity: 82%). The mean AR index was 29.4 ± 6 for mild and 13.8 ± 5 for moderate/severe PAR. Three patients had a RF > 14% and a low AR index <25 despite a mild PAR at TTE, suggesting an underestimation at TTE. CONCLUSION: CMR is a reproducible, accurate, and reliable method to assess PAR severity. CMR may allow correcting an underestimation at TTE when AR index is doubtful.
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Insuficiencia de la Válvula Aórtica/diagnóstico , Insuficiencia de la Válvula Aórtica/cirugía , Imagen por Resonancia Cinemagnética , Reemplazo de la Válvula Aórtica Transcatéter , Ecocardiografía/métodos , Humanos , Tomografía Computarizada Multidetector/métodos , Cuidados Posoperatorios , Valor Predictivo de las Pruebas , Estudios Prospectivos , Reproducibilidad de los Resultados , Sensibilidad y Especificidad , Índice de Severidad de la Enfermedad , Reemplazo de la Válvula Aórtica Transcatéter/métodosRESUMEN
Data on regional variations in the characteristics, management and early outcome of patients admitted with ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) in France are limited. We used data from the FAST-MI 2010 registry to determine whether regional specificities existed, dividing the French territory into 6 larger geographical regions. Variations in the patients' characteristics were found, partly related to regional variations in demography. Acute reperfusion strategy showed more use of primary percutaneous coronary intervention in the greater Paris area, compared to other regions, which would be expected owing to geography and local availability of catheterization laboratories. Overall, however, in-hospital management showed more similarities than differences across regions. Complications, and in particular in-hospital mortality, did not differ significantly among regions.
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Sistema de Conducción Cardíaco/fisiopatología , Infarto del Miocardio/epidemiología , Infarto del Miocardio/terapia , Reperfusión Miocárdica/métodos , Anciano , Anciano de 80 o más Años , Antiinflamatorios no Esteroideos/uso terapéutico , Quimioterapia Combinada , Femenino , Francia/epidemiología , Humanos , Inhibidores de Hidroximetilglutaril-CoA Reductasas/uso terapéutico , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Infarto del Miocardio/mortalidad , Infarto del Miocardio/fisiopatología , Intervención Coronaria Percutánea/métodos , Prevalencia , Factores de Riesgo , Resultado del TratamientoRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Acute kidney injury (AKI) is common in sepsis. Treatments allowing maintenance of renal blood flow (RBF) could help to prevent AKI associated with renal hypoperfusion. Amino acids (AA) have been associated with an increase of RBF and glomerular filtration rate (GFR) in several species. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of an AA infusion on RBF and GFR in a porcine model of septic shock. METHODS: A total of 17 piglets were randomly assigned into three groups: Sham (Sham, n = 5), sepsis without AA (S-NAA, n = 6), sepsis treated with AA (S-AA, n = 6). Piglets preparation included the placement of ultrasonic transit time flow probes around left renal artery for continuous RBF measurement; ureteral catheters for GFR and urine output evaluation; pulmonary artery catheter for cardiac output (CO) and pulmonary arterial pressure measurements. Mean arterial pressure (MAP) and renal vascular resistance (RVR) were also determined. Septic shock was induced with a live Pseudomonas aeruginosa infusion. Crystalloids, colloids and epinephrine infusion were used to maintain and restore MAP > 60 mmHg and CO > 80% from baseline. RESULTS: Renal haemodynamic did not change significantly in the Sham group, whereas RBF increased slightly in the S-NAA group. Conversely, a significant increase in RVR and a decrease in RBF and GFR were observed in the S-AA group. AA infusion was associated with a higher requirement of epinephrine [340.0 (141.2; 542.5) mg vs. 32.5 (3.8; 65.0) mg in the S-NAA group P = 0.044]. CONCLUSION: An infusion of amino acids impaired renal haemodynamics in this experimental model of septic shock.
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Aminoácidos/farmacología , Circulación Renal/efectos de los fármacos , Choque Séptico/fisiopatología , Aminoácidos/administración & dosificación , Animales , Presión Arterial/efectos de los fármacos , Gasto Cardíaco/efectos de los fármacos , Epinefrina/farmacología , Femenino , Tasa de Filtración Glomerular , Infusiones Intravenosas , Soluciones Isotónicas , Monitoreo Fisiológico , Infecciones por Pseudomonas/fisiopatología , Lactato de Ringer , Porcinos , Resistencia Vascular/efectos de los fármacos , Vasoconstrictores/farmacologíaRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Statin therapy is a cornerstone therapy for secondary prevention after acute coronary syndrome (ACS). However, the use of these drugs can be limited by side effects, mainly muscular pain. Ezetimibe is a newer lipid-lowering agent, with fewer side effects. AIMS: The present study was designed to compare a commercially available association of ezetimibe and simvastatin (E-S) to high dose Rosuvastatin on cholesterol and muscular enzyme levels and occurrence of muscular pain. METHODS: All consecutive ACS statin-naïve patients with LDL cholesterol (LDL-C)>100mg/dL randomly received either high dose statin (Rosuvastatin 20mg) or E-S 10/40-mg. All patients had one-month follow-up with biological testing and clinical examination. We compared the two groups on the biological efficiency and incidence of muscular pain. RESULTS: One hundred and twenty-eight patients were randomized; 64 received E-S and 64 Rosuvastatin. In the two groups, the lowering of LDL-C level (Δ=51%) at one month was significant (P<0.01) without any difference in the rate of lowering on LDL-C or HDL-C suggesting that E-S is as effective as high dose Rosuvastatin (P=0.77 and P=0.99). The rate of patients reaching the objective of LDL-C<100mg/dL (45%) and LDL-C<70mg/dL (51%) was not different in the two clusters (P=0.65). Incidence of muscular pain was 15% higher in patients treated with Rosuvastatin (P=0.01) without any difference on CPK level (P=0.6). CONCLUSION: Using an association of E-S in an effective alternative strategy to high dose Rosuvastatin with a lower incidence of muscular pain, which might impact adherence to medication after ACS.
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Síndrome Coronario Agudo/tratamiento farmacológico , Anticolesterolemiantes/administración & dosificación , Azetidinas/administración & dosificación , Fluorobencenos/administración & dosificación , Inhibidores de Hidroximetilglutaril-CoA Reductasas/administración & dosificación , Pirimidinas/administración & dosificación , Sulfonamidas/administración & dosificación , Anticolesterolemiantes/efectos adversos , Azetidinas/efectos adversos , Quimioterapia Combinada , Ezetimiba , Femenino , Fluorobencenos/efectos adversos , Humanos , Inhibidores de Hidroximetilglutaril-CoA Reductasas/efectos adversos , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Estudios Prospectivos , Pirimidinas/efectos adversos , Rosuvastatina Cálcica , Sulfonamidas/efectos adversosRESUMEN
Based on a review of the literature, the authors have made a critical study of several etiological factors. Endogenous factors such as acetabular dysplasia, increased anteversion of the femoral neck, and capsular laxity support the genetic theory but are neither constant nor necessary and are only facilitating factors. The major factor seems to be a mechanical one linked to the position in the uterus: hyperflexion with adduction and external rotation constituting the dislocating foetal posture combined with abnormal pressure on the greater trochanter and leading to expulsion of the head upward and backward. This theory can explain the natural history of C D H which is first, at birth a hip instability followed by two possible evolutions: either persistent luxation becoming irreducible or spontaneous stabilisation leading sometimes to complete healing or to residual abnormalities (subluxation or dysplasia). This concept suggests practical conclusions: the importance of an early diagnosis, the selection of the signs of the hip at risk, the pattern of prevention, the role for non-clinical investigations, the principles of the treatment based on postures, the indications for the different types of treatment.
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Luxación Congénita de la Cadera/diagnóstico , Luxación Congénita de la Cadera/etiología , HumanosRESUMEN
AIM: The aim of this study was to assess the feasibility and relevance of determining ankle brachial index (ABI) using an automatic blood pressure device in subjects seen for their annual routine examination by occupational physicians and to compare the obtained ABI with the Framingham score. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Sixteen physicians randomly recruited 634 subjects in 12 departments of occupational medicine. Subjects aged between 40 and 60 years underwent a determination of ABI using an OMRON HM 722 device and the analysis of Framingham score. Other analysed variables were: sex, age, smoking habit, hypertension, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, glycaemia, total cholesterol, HDL and LDL cholesterol and triglycerides levels. RESULTS: Mean age of the population studied was 48.1 ± 6.0 years; 73% were men, 36% were smokers, 14% had hypertension, 3.3% diabetes and 22% hypercholesterolemia. Biochemical values were glycaemia 0.90 ± 0.30 g/l, total cholesterol 2.10 ± 0.4 g/l, HDL cholesterol level 0.50 ± 0.20 g/l, LDL cholesterol level 1.30 ± 0.40 g/l, and triglycerides 1.40 ± 1.0 g/l. Mean ABI were 1.1 ± 0.1 in both legs. Mean Framingham score was 8.2 ± 5.4%. Only 20 subjects (3%) had an ABI < 0.90. No relation was found between pathological ABI and Framingham score (abnormal ABI : 9.9 ± 5.5 vs. normal ABI : 8.2 ± 5.4, NS). CONCLUSION: The determination of ABI using a simple commercially available automatic blood pressure device is feasible and easy to implement by preventive or general physicians in all kinds of routine examinations. In our opinion automatic ABI very easy and quick to determine provides, in addition to Framingham score, a simple and useful tool to detect subjects at high cardio-vascular risk.
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Índice Tobillo Braquial/instrumentación , Presión Sanguínea/fisiología , Enfermedades Cardiovasculares/prevención & control , Medicina del Trabajo/instrumentación , Adulto , Enfermedades Cardiovasculares/fisiopatología , Estudios de Factibilidad , Femenino , Humanos , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Medición de Riesgo/métodosRESUMEN
The surface properties and functionality of an illite-containing clay mineral in alkaline solutions containing increasing quantities of calcium hydroxide were investigated using FTIR monitored pyridine adsorption at various temperatures. Results showed that the binding behavior of electron donor pyridine molecules to illite platelets is mostly governed by electron acceptor sites located at the edges of the clay particles. The binding of bulky hydrated calcium ions at the surface of the illite platelets decreases the surface area of illite. Moderate thermal treatments up to 450°C do not affect the structure of the clay mineral but strongly decrease the number of Lewis and Brönsted sites available at the edges of the clay platelets.