Human-Specific ARHGAP11B Acts in Mitochondria to Expand Neocortical Progenitors by Glutaminolysis.

The human-specific gene ARHGAP11B is preferentially expressed in neural progenitors of fetal human neocortex and increases abundance and proliferation of basal progenitors (BPs), which have a key role in neocortex expansion. ARHGAP11B has therefore been implicated in the evolutionary expansion of the human neocortex, but its mode of action has been unknown. Here, we show that ARHGAP11B is imported into mitochondria, where it interacts with the adenine nucleotide translocase (ANT) and inhibits the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP). BP expansion by ARHGAP11B requires its presence in mitochondria, and pharmacological inhibition of ANT function or mPTP opening mimic BP expansion by ARHGAP11B. Searching for the underlying metabolic basis, we find that BP expansion by ARHGAP11B requires glutaminolysis, the conversion of glutamine to glutamate for the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. Hence, an ARHGAP11B-induced, mitochondria-based effect on BP metabolism that is a hallmark of highly mitotically active cells appears to underlie its role in neocortex expansion.

FlexiBAC: a versatile, open-source baculovirus vector system for protein expression, secretion, and proteolytic processing.

BACKGROUND: Baculovirus-mediated expression in insect cells is a powerful approach for protein production. However, many existing methods are time-consuming, offer limited options for protein tagging, and are unsuitable for secreted proteins requiring proteolytic maturation, such as TGF-ß family growth factors. RESULTS: To overcome the limitations of traditional baculovirus expression systems, we engineered "FlexiBAC". This system allows recombinant baculovirus formation inside insect cells and reduces the time between initial cloning and protein production to 13 days. FlexiBAC includes 143 shuttle vectors that append combinations of purification tags, fluorescent markers, proteolytic cleavage sites, trafficking signals, and chemical conjugation tags to the termini of the target protein. This system also overexpresses recombinant furin convertase to allow efficient proteolytic processing of secreted proteins. We demonstrate that FlexiBAC can be used to produce high levels of mature, active forms of TGF-ß family growth factors, such as Activin A, as well as other proteins that are typically difficult to reconstitute, such as proteins rich in coiled-coil, low complexity, and disordered domains. CONCLUSIONS: FlexiBAC is a protein expression system for production of both cytosolic proteins and secreted proteins that require proteolytic maturation. The design of FlexiBAC and its expansive complementary shuttle vector system reduces cloning steps and simplifies baculovirus production.

Molecular parallelism in fast-twitch muscle proteins in echolocating mammals.

Detecting associations between genomic changes and phenotypic differences is fundamental to understanding how phenotypes evolved. By systematically screening for parallel amino acid substitutions, we detected known as well as novel cases (Strc, Tecta, and Cabp2) of parallelism between echolocating bats and toothed whales in proteins that could contribute to high-frequency hearing adaptations. Our screen also showed that echolocating mammals exhibit an unusually high number of parallel substitutions in fast-twitch muscle fiber proteins. Both echolocating bats and toothed whales produce an extremely rapid call rate when homing in on their prey, which was shown in bats to be powered by specialized superfast muscles. We show that these genes with parallel substitutions (Casq1, Atp2a1, Myh2, and Myl1) are expressed in the superfast sound-producing muscle of bats. Furthermore, we found that the calcium storage protein calsequestrin 1 of the little brown bat and the bottlenose dolphin functionally converged in its ability to form calcium-sequestering polymers at lower calcium concentrations, which may contribute to rapid calcium transients required for superfast muscle physiology. The proteins that our genomic screen detected could be involved in the convergent evolution of vocalization in echolocating mammals by potentially contributing to both rapid Ca2+ transients and increased shortening velocities in superfast muscles.

Stability of proICA512/IA-2 and its targeting to insulin secretory granules require ß4-sheet-mediated dimerization of its ectodomain in the endoplasmic reticulum.

The type 1 diabetes autoantigen ICA512/IA-2/RPTPN is a receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase of the insulin secretory granules (SGs) which regulates the size of granule stores, possibly via cleavage/signaling of its cytosolic tail. The role of its extracellular region remains unknown. Structural studies indicated that ß2- or ß4-strands in the mature ectodomain (ME ICA512) form dimers in vitro. Here we show that ME ICA512 prompts proICA512 dimerization in the endoplasmic reticulum. Perturbation of ME ICA512 ß2-strand N-glycosylation upon S508A replacement allows for proICA512 dimerization, O-glycosylation, targeting to granules, and conversion, which are instead precluded upon G553D replacement in the ME ICA512 ß4-strand. S508A/G553D and N506A/G553D double mutants dimerize but remain in the endoplasmic reticulum. Removal of the N-terminal fragment (ICA512-NTF) preceding ME ICA512 allows an ICA512-ΔNTF G553D mutant to exit the endoplasmic reticulum, and ICA512-ΔNTF is constitutively delivered to the cell surface. The signal for SG sorting is located within the NTF RESP18 homology domain (RESP18-HD), whereas soluble NTF is retained in the endoplasmic reticulum. Hence, we propose that the ME ICA512 ß2-strand fosters proICA512 dimerization until NTF prevents N506 glycosylation. Removal of this constraint allows for proICA512 ß4-strand-induced dimerization, exit from the endoplasmic reticulum, O-glycosylation, and RESP18-HD-mediated targeting to granules.

Purification of tubulin from porcine brain.

Microtubules, polymers of the heterodimeric protein αß-tubulin, give shape to cells and are the tracks for vesicle transport and chromosome segregation. In vitro assays to study microtubule functions and their regulation by microtubule-associated proteins require the availability of purified αß-tubulin. In this chapter, we describe the process of purification of heterodimeric αß-tubulin from porcine brain.

Biogenesis of secretory granules.

Secretory granules of neuroendocrine cells store and release peptide hormones and neuropeptides in response to various stimuli. Generation of granules from the Golgi complex involves the aggregation of cargo proteins and their sorting from non-regulated secretory molecules. Recent findings on knockout mice lacking individual granule constituents have challenged the hypothesis that an 'essential' protein for the assembly of these organelles exists, while studies on polypyrimidine tract-binding protein and ICA512/IA-2 have provided insight into the mechanisms for adjusting granule production in relation to stimulation and secretory activity.

The small chemical vacuolin-1 inhibits Ca(2+)-dependent lysosomal exocytosis but not cell resealing.

Resealing after wounding, the process of repair following plasma membrane damage, requires exocytosis. Vacuolins are molecules that induce rapid formation of large, swollen structures derived from endosomes and lysosomes by homotypic fusion combined with uncontrolled fusion of the inner and limiting membranes of these organelles. Vacuolin-1, the most potent compound, blocks the Ca(2+)-dependent exocytosis of lysosomes induced by ionomycin or plasma membrane wounding, without affecting the process of resealing. In contrast, other cell structures and membrane trafficking functions including exocytosis of enlargeosomes are unaffected. Because cells heal normally in the presence of vacuolin-1, we suggest that lysosomes are dispensable for resealing.

Polypyrimidine tract-binding protein promotes insulin secretory granule biogenesis.

Pancreatic beta-cells store insulin in secretory granules that undergo exocytosis upon glucose stimulation. Sustained stimulation depletes beta-cells of their granule pool, which must be quickly restored. However, the factors promoting rapid granule biogenesis are unknown. Here we show that beta-cell stimulation induces the nucleocytoplasmic translocation of polypyrimidine tract-binding protein (PTB). Activated cytosolic PTB binds and stabilizes mRNAs encoding proteins of secretory granules, thus increasing their translation, whereas knockdown of PTB expression by RNA interference (RNAi) results in the depletion of secretory granules. These findings may provide insight for the understanding and treatment of diabetes, in which insulin secretion is typically impaired.

Regulated exocytosis: a novel, widely expressed system.

Electrophysiological studies in some secretory and non-secretory cells have identified an extensive form of calcium-induced exocytosis that is rapid (hundreds of milliseconds), insensitive to tetanus toxin and distinct from regulated secretion. We have now identified a marker of the process, desmoyokin-AHNAK, in a clonal derivative of the neuronal cell line, PC12. In resting cells, desmoyokin-AHNAK is localized within the lumen of specific vesicles, but appears on the cell surface during stimulation. Desmoyokin-AHNAK-positive vesicles exist in a variety of cells and tissues and are distinct from the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi, trans-Golgi, endosomes and lysosomes, and from Glut4 and constitutive secretion vesicles. They seem to be involved in two models of plasmalemma enlargement: differentiation and membrane repair. We therefore propose that these vesicles should be called 'enlargosomes'.