The acute effects of community violence on young children's regulatory, behavioral, and developmental outcomes in a low-income urban sample in Brazil.

BACKGROUND: Existing research on the impacts of adversity on young children's psychological well-being has largely focused on household-level risk factors using observational methods in high-income countries. This study leverages natural variation in the timing and location of community homicides to estimate their acute effects on the regulatory, behavioral, and developmental outcomes of Brazilian 3-year-olds. METHODS: We compared the outcomes of children who were assessed soon after a recent neighborhood homicide to those of children from the same residential neighborhoods who had not recently experienced community violence. Our sample included 3,241 3-year-olds (Mage = 41.05 months; 53% female; 45% caregiver education less than middle school; 26% receiving a public assistance program) from seven neighborhoods in São Paulo, Brazil. Child outcome measures included parent reports of effortful control and behavior problems as well as direct assessments of children's developmental (cognitive, language, and motor) skills. Community homicides were measured using police records. RESULTS: Recent exposure to community homicides was associated with lower effortful control, higher behavior problems, and lower overall developmental performance for children (d = .05-.20 standard deviations; p = ns - <.001). Effects were consistent across subgroups based on sociodemographic characteristics and environmental supports, but generally largest when community violence exposure was geographically proximal (within 600 m of home) and recent (within 2 weeks prior to assessment). CONCLUSIONS: Results highlight the pervasive effects that community violence can have on young children as well as the need to expand support to mitigate these effects and prevent inequities early in life.

Assessment of school readiness and the importance of executive functions for learning / Avaliação da prontidão escolar e a importância das funções executivas para o aprendizado

ABSTRACT Objective: Considering the importance of the beginning of the academic trajectory for children to reach their full development, this work aims to evaluate the school readiness of preschool-age children and identify which factors influence these results, in order to contribute to the proposition of strategies that allow improving the teaching-learning process and child development. Methods: This is a cross-sectional, descriptive and analytical study with 443 preschool children belonging to the West Region Cohort (ROC Cohort), from the public school system of the city of São Paulo. School readiness was assessed by the International Development and Early Learning Assessment (IDELA) tool. Non-parametric techniques were used for the correlation analysis between IDELA scores and sociodemographic and socioeconomic conditions: Spearman's parametric correlation, Mann-Whitney and Kruskal-Wallis tests. Results: The children's mean age was 69 months (standard deviation — SD=2.8; ranging from 55 to 72 months) and most of them came from families with low socioeconomic level. Most children showed adequate readiness in the overall score (65%) and in most domains, except for emergent literacy, in which most (56.9%) were classified as "emergent". The highest percentage of insufficiency was identified in executive functions (4.1%), which showed a correlation only with the caregiver's education. Conclusions: Children had adequate school readiness scores, except for emergent literacy, but the insufficiency in executive functions may compromise the future schooling of these children. Thus, pedagogical proposals should consider these aspects for learning and pediatricians need to reinforce the habit of reading and playing games to stimulate child development.

RESUMO Objetivo: Considerando-se a importância do início da trajetória acadêmica para as crianças alcançarem o seu pleno potencial de desenvolvimento, este trabalho tem como objetivo avaliar a prontidão escolar de crianças em idade pré-escolar e identificar que fatores influenciam esses resultados, com a finalidade de propor estratégias que possam melhorar o processo de ensino-aprendizagem e o desenvolvimento da criança. Métodos: Trata-se de um estudo transversal, descritivo e analítico, com 443 pré-escolares pertencentes à Coorte da Região Oeste (Coorte ROC) da rede pública de ensino da cidade de São Paulo. A prontidão escolar foi avaliada pela ferramenta International Development and Early Learning Assessment (IDELA). Técnicas não paramétricas foram utilizadas para a análise de correlação entre escores de IDELA e as condições sociodemográficas e socioeconômicas: correlação paramétrica de Spearman, testes de Mann-Whitney e Kruskal-Wallis. Resultados: A média de idade das crianças foi de 69 meses (desvio padrão — DP=2,8; variando de 55 a 72 meses) e maioria era proveniente de famílias com baixo nível socioeconômico. A maioria das crianças apresentou prontidão adequada na pontuação geral (65%) e na maior parte dos domínios, com exceção da pré-escrita, na qual as crianças foram predominantemente (56,9%) classificadas como "emergentes". O maior percentual de insuficiência foi identificado nas funções executivas (4,1%), apresentando correlação apenas com a formação do cuidador. Conclusões: As crianças apresentaram escores adequados de prontidão escolar, exceto para a pré-escrita, mas a insuficiência nas funções executivas pode comprometer a escolaridade futura dessas crianças. Assim, as propostas pedagógicas devem considerar esses aspectos para a aprendizagem, e os pediatras precisam reforçar o hábito de ler e dos jogos e brincadeiras para estimular o desenvolvimento infantil.

Assessment of school readiness and the importance of executive functions for learning.

OBJECTIVE: Considering the importance of the beginning of the academic trajectory for children to reach their full development, this work aims to evaluate the school readiness of preschool-age children and identify which factors influence these results, in order to contribute to the proposition of strategies that allow improving the teaching-learning process and child development. METHODS: This is a cross-sectional, descriptive and analytical study with 443 preschool children belonging to the West Region Cohort (ROC Cohort), from the public school system of the city of São Paulo. School readiness was assessed by the International Development and Early Learning Assessment (IDELA) tool. Non-parametric techniques were used for the correlation analysis between IDELA scores and sociodemographic and socioeconomic conditions: Spearman's parametric correlation, Mann-Whitney and Kruskal-Wallis tests. RESULTS: The children's mean age was 69 months (standard deviation - SD=2.8; ranging from 55 to 72 months) and most of them came from families with low socioeconomic level. Most children showed adequate readiness in the overall score (65%) and in most domains, except for emergent literacy, in which most (56.9%) were classified as "emergent". The highest percentage of insufficiency was identified in executive functions (4.1%), which showed a correlation only with the caregiver's education. CONCLUSIONS: Children had adequate school readiness scores, except for emergent literacy, but the insufficiency in executive functions may compromise the future schooling of these children. Thus, pedagogical proposals should consider these aspects for learning and pediatricians need to reinforce the habit of reading and playing games to stimulate child development.

A Remote Parenting Program and Parent and Staff Perspectives: A Randomized Trial.

OBJECTIVES: To assess impact and implementation of remote delivery of a parenting program following suspension of in-person visits during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic. METHODS: Impact of remote delivery of the Reach Up parenting program on parenting practices was evaluated by randomized trial in Jamaica. Mothers with children aged 5 to 24 months who met 1 of 7 at-risk criteria were enrolled at health centers. Participants were randomly assigned to intervention or control using random number tables generated by a statistician. Intervention comprised a manual for parents with illustrated play activities, phone calls, and short message service messages. The control group received usual care. Parent practices were measured using an adapted Family Care Indicators telephone-administered questionnaire by interviewers unaware of group assignment. Qualitative interviews were conducted with staff and parents in Jamaica and Brazil and staff in Ecuador to identify facilitators and barriers to remote delivery of Reach Up. RESULTS: Two hundred forty-seven participants were assessed at endline (control n = 130; intervention n = 117). Intervention increased parent activities that support child development, effect size 0.34 SD (95% confidence interval 0.03-0.53), and use of praise, odds 2 times higher with intervention. There were no benefits to interactive language or play materials. Qualitative results showed parents appreciated program continuation and felt motivated to help their child, and methods were acceptable to staff. Barriers included poor mobile phone access, difficulty contacting parents, and feedback limitations without in-person contact. CONCLUSIONS: Remote delivery methods have potential to contribute to scaling of parenting programs.

[Analysis of the influence of the timing of enrollment in daycares on child development]. / Análise da influência do momento do ingresso em creches no desenvolvimento infantil.

This study aimed to analyze the relationship between the age of enrollment into early childhood education (ECE) programs and child development. This is a cross-sectional study using data from the Birth Cohort of the Western Region of São Paulo, Brazil, with a 36-month follow-up of children born at the University Hospital of the University of São Paulo from 2012 to 2014, and their caregivers who participated in the 36-month follow-up conducted from 2015 to 2017. Child development was measured by the Engle Scale of the Regional Project on Child Development Indicators (PRIDI). ECE programs were evaluated in relation to their quality. The social characteristics of the children and their caregivers, as well as the characteristics of the economic and family context, were used as exposure variables. Our sample consisted of 472 children and their parents/caregivers. The enrollment into daycare from 13 and 29 months was the most frequent. When considered alone, a higher age of enrollment was associated with higher development score [ß = 0.21, 95%CI: 0.02; 0.40, p = 0.027]. After adjusting for confounding variables in the regression models, it was observed that being enrolled in a private institution, total time of breastfeeding, time spent by the main caregiver working outside home, and inhibitory control were determinants in explaining the infant development at 36 months in the sample. Older age of entry into ECE programs may have a positive effect on infant development at 36 months of age, but these findings must be carefully considered.

Este estudo objetivou analisar a relação entre a idade de ingresso nos programas de educação na primeira infância (EPI) e o desenvolvimento infantil. Trata-se de um estudo transversal com dados oriundos da Coorte de Nascimentos da Região Oeste de São Paulo, Brasil. Realizou-se o acompanhamento de crianças nascidas no Hospital Universitário da Universidade de São Paulo durante 36 meses, entre os anos de 2012 e 2014, e de seus cuidadores respondentes durante a onda de seguimentos dos 36 meses de idade (realizada entre os anos de 2015 e 2017). O desenvolvimento infantil foi mensurado pelo instrumento Engle Scale do Projeto Regional de Indicadores de Desenvolvimento Infantil (PRIDI). Os programas de EPI foram avaliados em relação a sua qualidade. Foram utilizadas como variáveis expositivas as características sociais das crianças e dos seus cuidadores, bem como as características do contexto econômico e familiar. A amostra foi composta por 472 crianças e cuidadores. Observou-se que o ingresso na creche entre 13 e 29 meses foi o mais frequente. Quando considerados isoladamente, observou-se que uma maior idade de ingresso esteve associada com maior escore de desenvolvimento [ß = 0,21, IC95%: 0,02; 0,40, p = 0,027]. Após a inclusão das variáveis de ajuste nos modelos de regressão, observou-se que estar inscrito em instituição do tipo privada, tempo total de aleitamento materno, horas trabalhadas fora de casa pelo cuidador principal e o controle inibitório foram determinantes para explicar o desenvolvimento infantil aos 36 meses na amostra. A idade de ingresso mais tardia nos programas de EPI pode ter efeito positivo sobre o desenvolvimento infantil aos 36 meses de idade, porém esses achados precisam ser ponderados.

Este estudio tuvo como objetivo analizar la relación entre la edad de ingreso a los programas de educación infantil (EPI) y el desarrollo infantil. Se trata de un estudio transversal con datos de la Cohorte de Nacimientos de la Región Oeste de São Paulo, Brasil, con seguimiento de 36 meses de niños nacidos en el Hospital Universitario de la Universidad de São Paulo entre 2012 y 2014 y sus cuidadores durante la ola de seguimientos de los 36 meses de edad (realizada entre los años de 2015 y 2017). El desarrollo infantil se midió utilizando el instrumento Engle Scale do Proyecto Regional de Indicadores de Desarollo Infantil (PRIDI). Los programas de EPI fueron evaluados por su calidad. Se utilizaron como variables expositivas las características sociales de los niños y sus cuidadores, así como las características del contexto económico y familiar. La muestra estuvo compuesta por 472 niños y cuidadores. Se observó que el ingreso a la guardería entre 13 y 29 meses fue el más frecuente. Cuando considerados aisladamente, se observó que una mayor edad de ingreso estuvo asociada con mayor puntuación de desarrollo [ß = 0,21, IC95%; 0,02; 0,40, p = 0,027]. Luego de incluir las variables de ajuste en los modelos de regresión, se observó que el estar matriculado en una institución privada, el tiempo total de lactancia, las horas trabajadas fuera del hogar por el cuidador principal y el control inhibitorio fueron determinantes para explicar el desarrollo infantil a los 36 meses de la muestra. La edad de ingreso más tardía en los programas de EPI puede tener un efecto positivo sobre el desarrollo infantil a los 36 meses de edad, pero estos hallazgos necesitan ser ponderados. cia al parto y nacimiento, con seguridad y cuidado, sin afectar los resultados.

The creation of the Global Scales for Early Development (GSED) for children aged 0-3 years: combining subject matter expert judgements with big data.

INTRODUCTION: With the ratification of the Sustainable Development Goals, there is an increased emphasis on early childhood development (ECD) and well-being. The WHO led Global Scales for Early Development (GSED) project aims to provide population and programmatic level measures of ECD for 0-3 years that are valid, reliable and have psychometrically stable performance across geographical, cultural and language contexts. This paper reports on the creation of two measures: (1) the GSED Short Form (GSED-SF)-a caregiver reported measure for population-evaluation-self-administered with no training required and (2) the GSED Long Form (GSED-LF)-a directly administered/observed measure for programmatic evaluation-administered by a trained professional. METHODS: We selected 807 psychometrically best-performing items using a Rasch measurement model from an ECD measurement databank which comprised 66 075 children assessed on 2211 items from 18 ECD measures in 32 countries. From 766 of these items, in-depth subject matter expert judgements were gathered to inform final item selection. Specifically collected were data on (1) conceptual matches between pairs of items originating from different measures, (2) developmental domain(s) measured by each item and (3) perceptions of feasibility of administration of each item in diverse contexts. Prototypes were finalised through a combination of psychometric performance evaluation and expert consensus to optimally identify items. RESULTS: We created the GSED-SF (139 items) and GSED-LF (157 items) for tablet-based and paper-based assessments, with an optimal set of items that fit the Rasch model, met subject matter expert criteria, avoided conceptual overlap, covered multiple domains of child development and were feasible to implement across diverse settings. CONCLUSIONS: State-of-the-art quantitative and qualitative procedures were used to select of theoretically relevant and globally feasible items representing child development for children aged 0-3 years. GSED-SF and GSED-LF will be piloted and validated in children across diverse cultural, demographic, social and language contexts for global use.

Protocol for validation of the Global Scales for Early Development (GSED) for children under 3 years of age in seven countries.

INTRODUCTION: Children's early development is affected by caregiving experiences, with lifelong health and well-being implications. Governments and civil societies need population-based measures to monitor children's early development and ensure that children receive the care needed to thrive. To this end, the WHO developed the Global Scales for Early Development (GSED) to measure children's early development up to 3 years of age. The GSED includes three measures for population and programmatic level measurement: (1) short form (SF) (caregiver report), (2) long form (LF) (direct administration) and (3) psychosocial form (PF) (caregiver report). The primary aim of this protocol is to validate the GSED SF and LF. Secondary aims are to create preliminary reference scores for the GSED SF and LF, validate an adaptive testing algorithm and assess the feasibility and preliminary validity of the GSED PF. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: We will conduct the validation in seven countries (Bangladesh, Brazil, Côte d'Ivoire, Pakistan, The Netherlands, People's Republic of China, United Republic of Tanzania), varying in geography, language, culture and income through a 1-year prospective design, combining cross-sectional and longitudinal methods with 1248 children per site, stratified by age and sex. The GSED generates an innovative common metric (Developmental Score: D-score) using the Rasch model and a Development for Age Z-score (DAZ). We will evaluate six psychometric properties of the GSED SF and LF: concurrent validity, predictive validity at 6 months, convergent and discriminant validity, and test-retest and inter-rater reliability. We will evaluate measurement invariance by comparing differential item functioning and differential test functioning across sites. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: This study has received ethical approval from the WHO (protocol GSED validation 004583 20.04.2020) and approval in each site. Study results will be disseminated through webinars and publications from WHO, international organisations, academic journals and conference proceedings. REGISTRATION DETAILS: Open Science Framework https://osf.io/ on 19 November 2021 (DOI 10.17605/OSF.IO/KX5T7; identifier: osf-registrations-kx5t7-v1).

Análise da influência do momento do ingresso em creches no desenvolvimento infantil / Analysis of the influence of the timing of enrollment in daycares on child development / Análisis de la influencia del momento de ingreso a las guarderías en el desarrollo infantil

Este estudo objetivou analisar a relação entre a idade de ingresso nos programas de educação na primeira infância (EPI) e o desenvolvimento infantil. Trata-se de um estudo transversal com dados oriundos da Coorte de Nascimentos da Região Oeste de São Paulo, Brasil. Realizou-se o acompanhamento de crianças nascidas no Hospital Universitário da Universidade de São Paulo durante 36 meses, entre os anos de 2012 e 2014, e de seus cuidadores respondentes durante a onda de seguimentos dos 36 meses de idade (realizada entre os anos de 2015 e 2017). O desenvolvimento infantil foi mensurado pelo instrumento Engle Scale do Projeto Regional de Indicadores de Desenvolvimento Infantil (PRIDI). Os programas de EPI foram avaliados em relação a sua qualidade. Foram utilizadas como variáveis expositivas as características sociais das crianças e dos seus cuidadores, bem como as características do contexto econômico e familiar. A amostra foi composta por 472 crianças e cuidadores. Observou-se que o ingresso na creche entre 13 e 29 meses foi o mais frequente. Quando considerados isoladamente, observou-se que uma maior idade de ingresso esteve associada com maior escore de desenvolvimento [β = 0,21, IC95%: 0,02; 0,40, p = 0,027]. Após a inclusão das variáveis de ajuste nos modelos de regressão, observou-se que estar inscrito em instituição do tipo privada, tempo total de aleitamento materno, horas trabalhadas fora de casa pelo cuidador principal e o controle inibitório foram determinantes para explicar o desenvolvimento infantil aos 36 meses na amostra. A idade de ingresso mais tardia nos programas de EPI pode ter efeito positivo sobre o desenvolvimento infantil aos 36 meses de idade, porém esses achados precisam ser ponderados.

This study aimed to analyze the relationship between the age of enrollment into early childhood education (ECE) programs and child development. This is a cross-sectional study using data from the Birth Cohort of the Western Region of São Paulo, Brazil, with a 36-month follow-up of children born at the University Hospital of the University of São Paulo from 2012 to 2014, and their caregivers who participated in the 36-month follow-up conducted from 2015 to 2017. Child development was measured by the Engle Scale of the Regional Project on Child Development Indicators (PRIDI). ECE programs were evaluated in relation to their quality. The social characteristics of the children and their caregivers, as well as the characteristics of the economic and family context, were used as exposure variables. Our sample consisted of 472 children and their parents/caregivers. The enrollment into daycare from 13 and 29 months was the most frequent. When considered alone, a higher age of enrollment was associated with higher development score [β = 0.21, 95%CI: 0.02; 0.40, p = 0.027]. After adjusting for confounding variables in the regression models, it was observed that being enrolled in a private institution, total time of breastfeeding, time spent by the main caregiver working outside home, and inhibitory control were determinants in explaining the infant development at 36 months in the sample. Older age of entry into ECE programs may have a positive effect on infant development at 36 months of age, but these findings must be carefully considered.

Este estudio tuvo como objetivo analizar la relación entre la edad de ingreso a los programas de educación infantil (EPI) y el desarrollo infantil. Se trata de un estudio transversal con datos de la Cohorte de Nacimientos de la Región Oeste de São Paulo, Brasil, con seguimiento de 36 meses de niños nacidos en el Hospital Universitario de la Universidad de São Paulo entre 2012 y 2014 y sus cuidadores durante la ola de seguimientos de los 36 meses de edad (realizada entre los años de 2015 y 2017). El desarrollo infantil se midió utilizando el instrumento Engle Scale do Proyecto Regional de Indicadores de Desarollo Infantil (PRIDI). Los programas de EPI fueron evaluados por su calidad. Se utilizaron como variables expositivas las características sociales de los niños y sus cuidadores, así como las características del contexto económico y familiar. La muestra estuvo compuesta por 472 niños y cuidadores. Se observó que el ingreso a la guardería entre 13 y 29 meses fue el más frecuente. Cuando considerados aisladamente, se observó que una mayor edad de ingreso estuvo asociada con mayor puntuación de desarrollo [β = 0,21, IC95%; 0,02; 0,40, p = 0,027]. Luego de incluir las variables de ajuste en los modelos de regresión, se observó que el estar matriculado en una institución privada, el tiempo total de lactancia, las horas trabajadas fuera del hogar por el cuidador principal y el control inhibitorio fueron determinantes para explicar el desarrollo infantil a los 36 meses de la muestra. La edad de ingreso más tardía en los programas de EPI puede tener un efecto positivo sobre el desarrollo infantil a los 36 meses de edad, pero estos hallazgos necesitan ser ponderados. cia al parto y nacimiento, con seguridad y cuidado, sin afectar los resultados.

Análise da influência do momento do ingresso em creches no desenvolvimento infantil / Analysis of the influence of the timing of enrollment in daycares on child development / Análisis de la influencia del momento de ingreso a las guarderías en el desarrollo infantil

Este estudo objetivou analisar a relação entre a idade de ingresso nos programas de educação na primeira infância (EPI) e o desenvolvimento infantil. Trata-se de um estudo transversal com dados oriundos da Coorte de Nascimentos da Região Oeste de São Paulo, Brasil. Realizou-se o acompanhamento de crianças nascidas no Hospital Universitário da Universidade de São Paulo durante 36 meses, entre os anos de 2012 e 2014, e de seus cuidadores respondentes durante a onda de seguimentos dos 36 meses de idade (realizada entre os anos de 2015 e 2017). O desenvolvimento infantil foi mensurado pelo instrumento Engle Scale do Projeto Regional de Indicadores de Desenvolvimento Infantil (PRIDI). Os programas de EPI foram avaliados em relação a sua qualidade. Foram utilizadas como variáveis expositivas as características sociais das crianças e dos seus cuidadores, bem como as características do contexto econômico e familiar. A amostra foi composta por 472 crianças e cuidadores. Observou-se que o ingresso na creche entre 13 e 29 meses foi o mais frequente. Quando considerados isoladamente, observou-se que uma maior idade de ingresso esteve associada com maior escore de desenvolvimento [β = 0,21, IC95%: 0,02; 0,40, p = 0,027]. Após a inclusão das variáveis de ajuste nos modelos de regressão, observou-se que estar inscrito em instituição do tipo privada, tempo total de aleitamento materno, horas trabalhadas fora de casa pelo cuidador principal e o controle inibitório foram determinantes para explicar o desenvolvimento infantil aos 36 meses na amostra. A idade de ingresso mais tardia nos programas de EPI pode ter efeito positivo sobre o desenvolvimento infantil aos 36 meses de idade, porém esses achados precisam ser ponderados.

This study aimed to analyze the relationship between the age of enrollment into early childhood education (ECE) programs and child development. This is a cross-sectional study using data from the Birth Cohort of the Western Region of São Paulo, Brazil, with a 36-month follow-up of children born at the University Hospital of the University of São Paulo from 2012 to 2014, and their caregivers who participated in the 36-month follow-up conducted from 2015 to 2017. Child development was measured by the Engle Scale of the Regional Project on Child Development Indicators (PRIDI). ECE programs were evaluated in relation to their quality. The social characteristics of the children and their caregivers, as well as the characteristics of the economic and family context, were used as exposure variables. Our sample consisted of 472 children and their parents/caregivers. The enrollment into daycare from 13 and 29 months was the most frequent. When considered alone, a higher age of enrollment was associated with higher development score [β = 0.21, 95%CI: 0.02; 0.40, p = 0.027]. After adjusting for confounding variables in the regression models, it was observed that being enrolled in a private institution, total time of breastfeeding, time spent by the main caregiver working outside home, and inhibitory control were determinants in explaining the infant development at 36 months in the sample. Older age of entry into ECE programs may have a positive effect on infant development at 36 months of age, but these findings must be carefully considered.

Este estudio tuvo como objetivo analizar la relación entre la edad de ingreso a los programas de educación infantil (EPI) y el desarrollo infantil. Se trata de un estudio transversal con datos de la Cohorte de Nacimientos de la Región Oeste de São Paulo, Brasil, con seguimiento de 36 meses de niños nacidos en el Hospital Universitario de la Universidad de São Paulo entre 2012 y 2014 y sus cuidadores durante la ola de seguimientos de los 36 meses de edad (realizada entre los años de 2015 y 2017). El desarrollo infantil se midió utilizando el instrumento Engle Scale do Proyecto Regional de Indicadores de Desarollo Infantil (PRIDI). Los programas de EPI fueron evaluados por su calidad. Se utilizaron como variables expositivas las características sociales de los niños y sus cuidadores, así como las características del contexto económico y familiar. La muestra estuvo compuesta por 472 niños y cuidadores. Se observó que el ingreso a la guardería entre 13 y 29 meses fue el más frecuente. Cuando considerados aisladamente, se observó que una mayor edad de ingreso estuvo asociada con mayor puntuación de desarrollo [β = 0,21, IC95%; 0,02; 0,40, p = 0,027]. Luego de incluir las variables de ajuste en los modelos de regresión, se observó que el estar matriculado en una institución privada, el tiempo total de lactancia, las horas trabajadas fuera del hogar por el cuidador principal y el control inhibitorio fueron determinantes para explicar el desarrollo infantil a los 36 meses de la muestra. La edad de ingreso más tardía en los programas de EPI puede tener un efecto positivo sobre el desarrollo infantil a los 36 meses de edad, pero estos hallazgos necesitan ser ponderados. cia al parto y nacimiento, con seguridad y cuidado, sin afectar los resultados.

Gestational age acceleration is associated with epigenetic biomarkers of prenatal physiologic stress exposure.

BACKGROUND: Physiological maternal stress response, such as imbalance in the glucocorticoid pathway and immune system seems to be mediated by DNA methylation (DNAm) and might translate intrauterine stress exposures into phenotypic changes in a sex-specific manner. DNAm in specific sites can also predict newborn gestational age and gestational age acceleration (GAA). GAA occurs when the predicted biological age is higher than the chronological age. In adults, poor health outcomes related to this deviance are well documented and raise questions for the interpretation and prediction in early stages of life. Boys seem to be more vulnerable to intrauterine stress exposure than girls; however, the mechanisms of adaptive sex-specific responses are still unclear. We hypothesize that intrauterine stress exposure is associated with GAA and could be different in boys and girls if inflammatory or glucocorticoid pathways exposure is considered. RESULTS: Using the Western Region Birth Cohort (ROC-São Paulo, Brazil) (n = 83), we calculated DNAm age and GAA from cord blood samples. Two epigenetic risk scores were calculated as an indirect proxy for low-grade inflammation (i-ePGS) and for glucocorticoid exposure (GES). Multivariate linear regression models were applied to investigate associations of GAA with prenatal exposures. The i-ePGS and GES were included in different models with the same co-variates considering sex interactions. The first multivariate model investigating inflammatory exposure (adj. R2 = 0.31, p = < 0.001) showed that GAA was positively associated with i-ePGS (CI, 0.26-113.87, p = 0.049) and negative pregnancy-related feelings (CI, 0.04-0.48 p = 0.019). No sex interaction was observed. The second model investigating glucocorticoid exposure (adj. R2 = 0.32, p = < 0.001) showed that the higher was the GAA was associated with a lower the lower was the GES in girls (CI, 0.04-2.55, p = 0.044). In both models, maternal self-reported mental disorder was negatively associated with GAA. CONCLUSION: Prenatal epigenetic score of exposure to low-grade inflammatory was a predictor of GAA for both sexes. Glucocorticoid epigenetic score seems to be more important to GAA in girls. This study supports the evidence of sex-specificity in stress response, suggesting the glucocorticoid as a possible pathway adopted by girls to accelerate the maturation in an adverse condition.

Assessing the association between air pollution and child development in São Paulo, Brazil.

BACKGROUND: Outdoor air pollution is increasingly recognised as a key threat to population health globally, with particularly high risks for urban residents. In this study, we assessed the association between residential nitrogen dioxide (NO2) exposure and children's cognitive and behavioural development using data from São Paulo Brazil, one of the largest urban agglomerations in the world. METHODS: We used data from the São Paulo Western Region Birth Cohort, a longitudinal cohort study aiming to examine determinants as well as long-term implications of early childhood development. Cross-sectional data from the 72-month follow-up was analysed. Data on NO2 concentration in the study area was collected at 80 locations in 2019, and land use regression modelling was used to estimate annual NO2 concentration at children's homes. Associations between predicted NO2 exposure and children's cognitive development as well as children's behavioural problems were estimated using linear regression models adjusted for an extensive set of confounders. All results were expressed per 10 µg/m3 increase in NO2. RESULTS: 1143 children were included in the analysis. We found no association between NO2 and children's cognitive development (beta -0.05, 95% CI [-0.20; 0.10]) or behavioural problems (beta 0.02, 95% CI [-0.80; 0.12]). CONCLUSION: No association between child cognition or child behaviour and NO2 was found in this cross-sectional analysis. Further research will be necessary to understand the extent to which these null results reflect a true absence of association or other statistical, biological or adaptive factors not addressed in this paper.

Impact of COVID-19 on maternal health and child care behavior: Evidence from a quasi-experimental study of vulnerable communities in Boa Vista, Brazil.

BACKGROUND: COVID-19 related distress has been shown to have negative associations with family well-being. OBJECTIVES: To determine the immediate impact of acute COVID-19 infection on maternal well-being and parenting practices among Brazilian families. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: We studied 2'579 mothers (29'913 observations) of young children from vulnerable neighborhoods in Boa Vista, Brazil over 12 months. METHODS: We monitored family health and caregiving behavior including the incidence of COVID-19 infections in the surveyed households through bi-weekly phone interviews over 50 weeks, from June 2020 to May 2021. Primary outcomes were home-based child stimulation, positive parenting behavior, and parenting stress. We used fixed effects panel regressions to estimate the impact of household COVID-19 infections on parenting outcomes. RESULTS: Over the study period, 441 participants (17.1%; 831 (3.0%) observations) reported at least 1 positive COVID-19 infection in their household. Household COVID-19 infections significantly reduced home-based stimulation by 0.10 SDs (95%CI: -0.18, -0.01), positive parenting behaviors by 0.14 SDs (-0.21, -0.01), and increased parenting stress by 0.07 SDs (0.02, 0.12). The impact on home-based stimulation was most pronounced when the mother herself had a COVID-19 infection (-0.16; -0.29, -0.04). Parenting stress responded most strongly to mother or child COVID-19 infections. Effects were relatively short-lived, only children's infections' on parental stress was still detectable 2 weeks after initial infection. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that COVID-19 infections cause substantial disruptions in children's home environments - additional short-term support for families with acute infections could attenuate the negative impact on children's home environment during the pandemic.

Association between community noise and children's cognitive and behavioral development: A prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Noise exposure has been associated with adverse cognitive and behavioral outcomes in children, but evidence on longitudinal associations between community noise and child development in low- and middle-income countries is rare. We investigated associations between community noise and behavioral and cognitive development in preschool children in São Paulo. METHODS: We linked child development data from the São Paulo Western Region Birth Cohort with average (Lden) and night-time (Lnight) community noise exposure at children's home, estimated by means of a land use regression model using various predictors (roads, schools, greenness, residential and informal settlements). Outcomes were the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) and Regional Project on Child Development Indicators (PRIDI) at 3 years of age and the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and International Development and Early Learning Assessment (IDELA) at 6 years of age. We investigated the relationship between noise exposure and development using cross-sectional and longitudinal regression models. RESULTS: Data from 3385 children at 3 years of age and 1546 children at 6 years of age were analysed. Mean Lden and Lnight levels were 70.3 dB and 61.2 dB, respectively. In cross-sectional analyses a 10 dB increase of Lden above 70 dB was associated with a 32% increase in the odds of borderline or abnormal SDQ total difficulties score (OR = 1.32, 95% CI: 1.04; 1.68) and 0.72 standard deviation (SD) increase in the CBCL total problems z-score (95% CI: 0.55; 0.88). No cross-sectional association was found for cognitive development. In longitudinal analyses, each 10 dB increase was associated with a 0.52 SD increase in behavioral problems (95% CI: 0.28; 0.77) and a 0.27 SD decrease in cognition (95%-CI: 0.55; 0.00). Results for Lnight above 60 dB were similar. DISCUSSION: Our findings suggest that community noise exposure above Lden of 70 dB and Lnight of 60 dB may impair behavioral and cognitive development of preschool children.

Differences in children and adolescents with SARS-CoV-2 infection: a cohort study in a Brazilian tertiary referral hospital.

OBJECTIVES: To compare demographic/clinical/laboratory/treatments and outcomes among children and adolescents with laboratory-confirmed coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study that included patients diagnosed with pediatric COVID-19 (aged <18 years) between April 11, 2020 and April 22, 2021. During this period, 102/5,951 (1.7%) of all admissions occurred in neonates, children, and adolescents. Furthermore, 3,962 severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) detection samples were processed in patients aged <18 years, and laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 occurred in 155 (4%) inpatients and outpatients. Six/155 pediatric patients were excluded from the study. Therefore, the final group included 149 children and adolescents (n=97 inpatients and 52 outpatients) with positive SARS-CoV-2 results. RESULTS: The frequencies of sore throat, anosmia, dysgeusia, headache, myalgia, nausea, lymphopenia, pre-existing chronic conditions, immunosuppressive conditions, and autoimmune diseases were significantly reduced in children and adolescents (p<0.05). Likewise, the frequencies of enoxaparin use (p=0.037), current immunosuppressant use (p=0.008), vasoactive agents (p=0.045), arterial hypotension (p<0.001), and shock (p=0.024) were significantly lower in children than in adolescents. Logistic regression analysis showed that adolescents with laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 had increased odds ratios (ORs) for sore throat (OR 13.054; 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.750-61.977; p=0.001), nausea (OR 8.875; 95% CI 1.660-47.446; p=0.011), and lymphopenia (OR 3.575; 95% CI 1.355-9.430; p=0.010), but also had less hospitalizations (OR 0.355; 95% CI 0.138-0.916; p=0.032). The additional logistic regression analysis on patients with preexisting chronic conditions (n=108) showed that death as an outcome was significantly associated with pediatric severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) (OR 22.300; 95% CI 2.341-212.421; p=0.007) and multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) (OR 11.261; 95% CI 1.189-106. 581; p=0.035). CONCLUSIONS: Half of the laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 cases occurred in adolescents. Individuals belonging to this age group had an acute systemic involvement of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Pediatric SARS and MIS-C were the most important factors associated with the mortality rate in pediatric chronic conditions with COVID-19.

Persistent symptoms and decreased health-related quality of life after symptomatic pediatric COVID-19: A prospective study in a Latin American tertiary hospital.

OBJECTIVES: To prospectively evaluate demographic, anthropometric and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in pediatric patients with laboratory-confirmed coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). METHODS: This was a longitudinal observational study of surviving pediatric post-COVID-19 patients (n=53) and pediatric subjects without laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 included as controls (n=52) was performed. RESULTS: The median duration between COVID-19 diagnosis (n=53) and follow-up was 4.4 months (0.8-10.7). Twenty-three of 53 (43%) patients reported at least one persistent symptom at the longitudinal follow-up visit and 12/53 (23%) had long COVID-19, with at least one symptom lasting for >12 weeks. The most frequently reported symptoms at the longitudinal follow-up visit were headache (19%), severe recurrent headache (9%), tiredness (9%), dyspnea (8%), and concentration difficulty (4%). At the longitudinal follow-up visit, the frequencies of anemia (11% versus 0%, p=0.030), lymphopenia (42% versus 18%, p=0.020), C-reactive protein level of >30 mg/L (35% versus 0%, p=0.0001), and D-dimer level of >1000 ng/mL (43% versus 6%, p=0.0004) significantly reduced compared with baseline values. Chest X-ray abnormalities (11% versus 2%, p=0.178) and cardiac alterations on echocardiogram (33% versus 22%, p=0.462) were similar at both visits. Comparison of characteristic data between patients with COVID-19 at the longitudinal follow-up visit and controls showed similar age (p=0.962), proportion of male sex (p=0.907), ethnicity (p=0.566), family minimum monthly wage (p=0.664), body mass index (p=0.601), and pediatric pre-existing chronic conditions (p=1.000). The Pediatric Quality of Live Inventory 4.0 scores, median physical score (69 [0-100] versus 81 [34-100], p=0.012), and school score (60 [15-100] versus 70 [15-95], p=0.028) were significantly lower in pediatric patients with COVID-19 at the longitudinal follow-up visit than in controls. CONCLUSIONS: Pediatric patients with COVID-19 showed a longitudinal impact on HRQoL parameters, particularly in physical/school domains, reinforcing the need for a prospective multidisciplinary approach for these patients. These data highlight the importance of closer monitoring of children and adolescents by the clinical team after COVID-19.

Non-communicable diseases, sociodemographic vulnerability and the risk of mortality in hospitalised children and adolescents with COVID-19 in Brazil: a cross-sectional observational study.

OBJECTIVES: To analyse how previous comorbidities, ethnicity, regionality and socioeconomic development are associated with COVID-19 mortality in hospitalised children and adolescents. DESIGN: Cross-sectional observational study using publicly available data from the Brazilian Ministry of Health. SETTING: Nationwide. PARTICIPANTS: 5857 patients younger than 20 years old, all of them hospitalised with laboratory-confirmed COVID-19, from 1 January 2020 to 7 December 2020. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: We used multilevel mixed-effects generalised linear models to study in-hospital mortality, stratifying the analysis by age, region of the country, presence of non-communicable diseases, ethnicity and socioeconomic development. RESULTS: Individually, most of the included comorbidities were risk factors for mortality. Notably, asthma was a protective factor (OR 0.4, 95% CI 0.24 to 0.67). Having more than one comorbidity increased almost tenfold the odds of death (OR 9.67, 95% CI 6.89 to 13.57). Compared with white children, Indigenous, Pardo (mixed) and East Asian had significantly higher odds of mortality (OR 5.83, 95% CI 2.43 to 14.02; OR 1.93, 95% CI 1.48 to 2.51; OR 2.98, 95% CI 1.02 to 8.71, respectively). We also found a regional influence (higher mortality in the North-OR 3.4, 95% CI 2.48 to 4.65) and a socioeconomic association (lower mortality among children from more socioeconomically developed municipalities-OR 0.26, 95% CI 0.17 to 0.38) CONCLUSIONS: Besides the association with comorbidities, we found ethnic, regional and socioeconomic factors shaping the mortality of children hospitalised with COVID-19 in Brazil. Our findings identify risk groups among children that should be prioritised for public health measures, such as vaccination.

Land use regression modelling of NO2 in São Paulo, Brazil.

BACKGROUND: Air pollution is a major global public health problem. The situation is most severe in low- and middle-income countries, where pollution control measures and monitoring systems are largely lacking. Data to quantify the exposure to air pollution in low-income settings are scarce. METHODS: In this study, land use regression models (LUR) were developed to predict the outdoor nitrogen dioxide (NO2) concentration in the study area of the Western Region Birth Cohort in São Paulo. NO2 measurements were performed for one week in winter and summer at eighty locations. Additionally, weekly measurements at one regional background location were performed over a full one-year period to create an annual prediction. RESULTS: Three LUR models were developed (annual, summer, winter) by using a supervised stepwise linear regression method. The winter, summer and annual models explained 52 %, 75 % and 66 % of the variance (R2) respectively. Cross-holdout validation tests suggest robust models. NO2 levels ranged from 43.2 µg/m3 to 93.4 µg/m3 in the winter and between 28.1 µg/m3 and 72.8 µg/m3 in summer. Based on our annual prediction, about 67 % of the population living in the study area is exposed to NO2 values over the WHO suggested annual guideline of 40 µg/m3 annual average. CONCLUSION: In this study we were able to develop robust models to predict NO2 residential exposure. We could show that average measures, and therefore the predictions of NO2, in such a complex urban area are substantially high and that a major variability within the area and especially within the season is present. These findings also suggest that in general a high proportion of the population is exposed to high NO2 levels.

Land use regression modelling of community noise in São Paulo, Brazil.

Noise pollution has negative health consequences, which becomes increasingly relevant with rapid urbanization. In low- and middle-income countries research on health effects of noise is hampered by scarce exposure data and noise maps. In this study, we developed land use regression (LUR) models to assess spatial variability of community noise in the Western Region of São Paulo, Brazil.We measured outdoor noise levels continuously at 42 homes once or twice for one week in the summer and the winter season. These measurements were integrated with various geographic information system variables to develop LUR models for predicting average A-weighted (dB(A)) day-evening-night equivalent sound levels (Lden) and night sound levels (Lnight). A supervised mixed linear regression analysis was conducted to test potential noise predictors for various buffer sizes and distances between home and noise source. Noise exposure levels in the study area were high with a site average Lden of 69.3 dB(A) ranging from 60.3 to 82.3 dB(A), and a site average Lnight of 59.9 dB(A) ranging from 50.7 to 76.6 dB(A). LUR models had a good fit with a R2 of 0.56 for Lden and 0.63 for Lnight in a leave-one-site-out cross validation. Main predictors of noise were the inverse distance to medium roads, count of educational facilities within a 400 m buffer, mean Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) within a 100 m buffer, residential areas within a 50 m (Lden) or 25 m (Lnight) buffer and slum areas within a 400 m buffer. Our study suggests that LUR modelling with geographic predictor data is a promising and efficient approach for noise exposure assessment in low- and middle-income countries, where noise maps are not available.

Associations between neighborhood violence during pregnancy and birth outcomes: evidence from São Paulo's Western Region Birth Cohort.

BACKGROUND: Low birth weight and prematurity remain leading causes of infant mortality and morbidity globally. Although extensive literature has highlighted the importance of socioenvironmental characteristics for birth outcomes, the role of indirect violence on health remains fairly understudied. METHODS: Using geocoded birth records from the ongoing Western Region Birth Cohort (Região Oeste Coorte - ROC-Cohort) of infants born between 2012 and 2014 and geocoded crime reports, we assessed the associations between exposure to violent crimes during pregnancy within a 1-km radius of the mother's residence and low birth weight, preterm delivery, and being born small-for-gestational-age. Violent crime exposure was categorized into quintiles. Multivariate logistic regressions were used to examine the associations between violence exposure and birth outcomes. Models were adjusted for sex, maternal age and education, socioeconomic status, and risk factors such as hypertension, diabetes, smoking, and drinking during pregnancy. RESULTS: Among the 5268 children included, the average crime exposure during the first two trimesters of pregnancy ranged from 0.44 violent crimes in the least exposed quintile to 12.74 crimes in the most exposed. Compared to children with the lowest violence exposure, children in the highest exposure quintile had higher odds of being born small-for-gestational-age (1.41[1.06-1.89]), preterm (1.35[1.01-1.80]), and low birth weight (1.42[1.03-1.98]). While socioeconomic status and maternal education were positively associated with lower violence exposure, no associations were found between these characteristics and birth outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Higher exposure to violent crimes in the close vicinity of pregnant women's residence is associated with substantial increases in the odds of adverse birth outcomes. Policies to improve neighborhood safety can potentially contribute not only to the short-term wellbeing of populations but may also have large social, economic, and health benefits in the long term.

Breastfeeding, Physical Growth, and Cognitive Development.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Breastfeeding is an evidence-based recommendation for all countries, but breastfeeding rates have been declining in many middle-income settings. One reason behind this decline is the perception that breastfeeding may not be necessary in modern urban settings, where clean water is available and alternative foods are abundant. We investigate the importance of breastfeeding for early childhood development in the modern urban context of São Paulo, Brazil. METHODS: In our study, we used data from the ongoing prospective Western Region Birth cohort in São Paulo, Brazil. Children were recruited at birth and managed for 3 years. Durations of exclusive and mixed breastfeeding were our primary independent variables. Our secondary independent variable was an indicator for compliance with World Health Organization (WHO) breastfeeding recommendations. Our primary outcomes of interest were indicators of children's physical, cognitive, language, and social-emotional development at 3 years of age. Adjusted estimates and 95% confidence intervals were calculated by using linear and logistic regression. RESULTS: Complying with WHO recommendations to exclusively breastfeed for 6 months followed by complementary feeding until 2 years of age was associated with a 0.4-SD increase in overall child development (ß: .38; confidence limit = 0.23 to 0.53), a 0.6-SD increase in height-for-age z score (ß: .55; confidence limit = 0.31 to 0.79), and a 67% decrease in the odds of stunting (odds ratio = 0.33; 95% confidence interval = 0.20 to 0.54). CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that even in settings with easy access to complementary foods, complying with WHO breastfeeding recommendations is important for healthy physical growth and cognitive development.