Amyloid Beta Oligomers-Induced Ca2+ Entry Pathways: Role of Neuronal Networks, NMDA Receptors and Amyloid Channel Formation.

The molecular basis of amyloid toxicity in Alzheimer's disease (AD) remains controversial. Amyloid ß (Aß) oligomers promote Ca2+ influx, mitochondrial Ca2+ overload and apoptosis in hippocampal neurons in vivo and in vitro, but the primary Ca2+ entry pathways are unclear. We studied Ca2+ entry pathways induced by Aß oligomers in rat hippocampal and cerebellar neurons. Aß oligomers induce Ca2+ entry in neurons. Ca2+ responses to Aß oligomers are large after synaptic networking and prevented by blockers of synaptic transmission. In contrast, in neurons devoid of synaptic connections, Ca2+ responses to Aß oligomers are small and prevented only by blockers of amyloid channels (NA7) and NMDA receptors (MK801). A combination of NA7 and MK801 nearly abolished Ca2+ responses. Non-neuronal cells bearing NMDA receptors showed Ca2+ responses to oligomers, whereas cells without NMDA receptors did not exhibit Ca2+ responses. The expression of subunits of the NMDA receptor NR1/ NR2A and NR1/NR2B in HEK293 cells lacking endogenous NMDA receptors restored Ca2+ responses to NMDA but not to Aß oligomers. We conclude that Aß oligomers promote Ca2+ entry via amyloid channels and NMDA receptors. This may recruit distant neurons intertwisted by synaptic connections, spreading excitation and recruiting further NMDA receptors and voltage-gated Ca2+ channels, leading to excitotoxicity and neuron degeneration in AD.

Neurotoxic Ca2+ Signaling Induced by Amyloid-ß Oligomers in Aged Hippocampal Neurons In Vitro.

Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most prevalent dementia linked to aging, involves neurotoxic effects of amyloid ß species and dishomeostasis of intracellular Ca2+. To investigate mechanisms of AD, the effects of soluble species of amyloid ß oligomers (Aßo) prepared in medium devoid of glutamate receptor agonists can be tested on intracellular Ca2+ in long-term cultures of rat hippocampal neurons that reflect aging neurons. Furthermore, changes in expression of proteins involved in oligomer responses and AD can be tested in the same neurons using quantitative immunofluorescence. Detailed procedures for the preparation of Aß species in defined medium, long-term culture of rat hippocampal neurons mimicking aged neurons, calcium imaging and quantitative immunofluorescence in these cultures are described in this chapter.

Is it All Said for NSAIDs in Alzheimer's Disease? Role of Mitochondrial Calcium Uptake.

OBJECTIVES: Epidemiological data suggest that non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may protect against Alzheimer's disease (AD). Unfortunately, recent trials have failed in providing compelling evidence of neuroprotection. Discussion as to why NSAIDs effectivity is uncertain is ongoing. Possible explanations include the view that NSAIDs and other possible disease-modifying drugs should be provided before the patients develop symptoms of AD or cognitive decline. In addition, NSAID targets for neuroprotection are unclear. Both COX-dependent and independent mechanisms have been proposed, including γ-secretase that cleaves the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and yields amyloid ß peptide (Aß). METHODS: We have proposed a neuroprotection mechanism for NSAIDs based on inhibition of mitochondrial Ca2+ overload. Aß oligomers promote Ca2+ influx and mitochondrial Ca2+ overload leading to neuron cell death. Several non-specific NSAIDs including ibuprofen, sulindac, indomethacin and Rflurbiprofen depolarize mitochondria in the low µM range and prevent mitochondrial Ca2+ overload induced by Aß oligomers and/or N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA). However, at larger concentrations, NSAIDs may collapse mitochondrial potential (ΔΨ) leading to cell death. RESULTS: Accordingly, this mechanism may explain neuroprotection at low concentrations and damage at larger doses, thus providing clues on the failure of promising trials. Perhaps lower NSAID concentrations and/or alternative compounds with larger dynamic ranges should be considered for future trials to provide definitive evidence of neuroprotection against AD.

A new procedure for amyloid ß oligomers preparation enables the unambiguous testing of their effects on cytosolic and mitochondrial Ca(2+) entry and cell death in primary neurons.

Oligomers of the amyloid ß peptide (Aßo) are becoming the most likely neurotoxin in Alzheimer's disease. Controversy remains on the mechanisms involved in neurotoxicity induced by Aßo and the targets involved. We have reported that Aßo promote Ca(2+) entry, mitochondrial Ca(2+) overload and apoptosis in cultured cerebellar neurons. However, recent evidence suggests that some of these effects could be induced by glutamate receptor agonists solved in F12, the media in which Aßo are prepared. Here we have tested the effects of different media on Aßo formation and on cytosolic Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)]cyt) in rat cerebellar and hippocampal cell cultures. We found that Aßo prepared according to previous protocols but solved in alternative media including saline, MEM and DMEM do not allow oligomer formation and fail to increase [Ca(2+)]cyt. Changes in the oligomerization protocol and supplementation of media with selected salts reported to favor oligomer formation enable Aßo formation. Aßo prepared by the new procedure and containing small molecular weight oligomers increased [Ca(2+)]cyt, promoted mitochondrial Ca(2+) overload and cell death in cerebellar granule cells and hippocampal neurons. These results foster a role for Ca(2+) entry in neurotoxicity induced by Aßo and provide a reliable procedure for investigating the Ca(2+) entry pathway promoted by Aßo.

Susceptibility to excitotoxicity in aged hippocampal cultures and neuroprotection by non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: role of mitochondrial calcium.

Brain damage after insult and cognitive decline are related to excitotoxicity and strongly influenced by aging, yet mechanisms of aging-dependent susceptibility to excitotoxicity are poorly known. Several non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may prevent excitotoxicity and cognitive decline in the elderly by an unknown mechanism. Interestingly, after several weeks in vitro, hippocampal neurons display important hallmarks of neuronal aging in vivo. Accordingly, rat hippocampal neurons cultured for several weeks were used to investigate mechanisms of aging-related susceptibility to excitotoxicity and neuroprotection by NSAIDs. We found that NMDA increased cytosolic Ca(2+) concentration in young, mature and aged neurons but only promoted apoptosis in aged neurons. Resting Ca(2+) levels and responses to NMDA increased with time in culture which correlated with changes in expression of NMDA receptor subunits. In addition, NMDA promoted mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake only in aged cultures. Consistently, specific inhibition of mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake decreased apoptosis. Finally, we found that a series of NSAIDs depolarized mitochondria and inhibited mitochondrial Ca(2+) overload, thus preventing NMDA-induced apoptosis in aged cultures. We conclude that mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake is critical for age-related susceptibility to excitotoxicity and neuroprotection by NSAIDs. Rat hippocampal neurons aged in culture were used to investigate mechanisms of age-related susceptibility to excitotoxicity and neuroprotection by non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Old neurons display enhanced resting calcium and responses to NMDA along with increased expression of NMDA receptor subunits NR1 and NR2A altogether favoring mitochondrial calcium overload. NSAIDs protect neurons against excitotoxicity acting on mitochondrial calcium uptake. NMDA, N methyl d-aspartate.

Regulation of mitochondrial permeability transition pore by PINK1.

BACKGROUND: Loss-of-function mutations in PTEN-induced kinase 1 (PINK1) have been linked to familial Parkinson's disease, but the underlying pathogenic mechanism remains unclear. We previously reported that loss of PINK1 impairs mitochondrial respiratory activity in mouse brains. RESULTS: In this study, we investigate how loss of PINK1 impairs mitochondrial respiration using cultured primary fibroblasts and neurons. We found that intact mitochondria in PINK1-/- cells recapitulate the respiratory defect in isolated mitochondria from PINK1-/- mouse brains, suggesting that these PINK1-/- cells are a valid experimental system to study the underlying mechanisms. Enzymatic activities of the electron transport system complexes are normal in PINK1-/- cells, but mitochondrial transmembrane potential is reduced. Interestingly, the opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) is increased in PINK1-/- cells, and this genotypic difference between PINK1-/- and control cells is eliminated by agonists or inhibitors of the mPTP. Furthermore, inhibition of mPTP opening rescues the defects in transmembrane potential and respiration in PINK1-/- cells. Consistent with our earlier findings in mouse brains, mitochondrial morphology is similar between PINK1-/- and wild-type cells, indicating that the observed mitochondrial functional defects are not due to morphological changes. Following FCCP treatment, calcium increases in the cytosol are higher in PINK1-/- compared to wild-type cells, suggesting that intra-mitochondrial calcium concentration is higher in the absence of PINK1. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings show that loss of PINK1 causes selective increases in mPTP opening and mitochondrial calcium, and that the excessive mPTP opening may underlie the mitochondrial functional defects observed in PINK1-/- cells.

Study of neurotoxic intracellular calcium signalling triggered by amyloids.

Neurotoxicity in Alzheimer's disease (AD) is associated to dishomeostasis of intracellular Ca(2+) induced by amyloid ß peptide (Aß) species. Understanding of the effects of Aß on intracellular Ca(2+) homeostasis requires preparation of the different Aß assemblies including oligomers and fibrils and the testing of their effects on cytosolic and mitochondrial Ca(2+) in neurons. Procedures for cerebellar granule cell culture, preparation of Aß species as well as fluorescence and bioluminescence imaging of cytosolic and mitochondrial Ca(2+) in neurons are described.