Glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl) glycine] and glufosinate ammonium [ammonium dl-homoalanin-4-(methyl) phosphinate] are broad-spectrum, nonselective, post-emergence herbicides extensively used in various applications for weed control in both agricultural and non-crop areas. Aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) is the major degradation product of glyphosate found in plants, water, and soil. Due to glyphosate's presumed low mobility, its monitoring in European water was limited. Recently both glyphosate and AMPA have been detected in several groundwater samples in Europe, U.S, Canada, Argentina, and China. Understanding the sources of these substances in water, especially in groundwater used for drinking, becomes a priority. In the present work the occurrences and the main drives of glyphosate, AMPA, and glufosinate ammonium in the groundwater of hilly vineyards located in the North-West of Italy were evaluated. Groundwater monitoring results showed frequent detection and concentrations above EQSGW for glyphosate and AMPA, while glufosinate ammonium was never detected. More frequent occurrences and higher concentrations were detected in the samples collected from wells located in the farmyards, most of them being used for irrigation and/or preparation of PPPs mixtures. Indeed, AMPA was the only compound detected in one groundwater well used for drinking, at values bellow EQSGw/DWQS. Such monitoring results were not expected as the modelling estimations under local pedoclimatic conditions indicated no risk of leaching to groundwater. However, the modelling performance and output may have been influenced by the non-consideration of important specific processes. Integrating monitoring and modelling results with information concerning the agricultural practices adopted and the wells use and location, possible contamination drivers were identified. These include the non-agricultural use of glyphosate in the farmyard, the point source contamination of wells and the possible transport with the subsurface lateral inflow of water from up-hill vineyard. This study strengthens the position of SETAC EMAG-Pest GW group concerning the necessity of spatial and temporal contextualisation of groundwater monitoring for a better understanding of its contamination drivers by PPPs.
As echoed in the European Green Deal and Farm to Fork strategy, the EU agricultural policy has clear objectives of improving the sustainability (environmental, economic and social) of farm productions. The environmental goals are supported by promotion of organic farming and the responsible management of inputs such as fertilisers and pesticides. In this framework, there is a need is to provide farmers with tools to evaluate the best options for reducing environmental impact and measure performances in improving the sustainability of their productions. This paper introduces MIMERA, a GIS easy-to-use tool for the sustainable use of pesticides at farm level. MIMERA was developed in the framework of the Train-Agro project funded by the Lombardia Region (Italy), in the framework of the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development Programme (EAFRD). The main goal is to help professional pesticide users to identify the best pest management strategies by comparing the environmental risk of authorized commercial formulations of pesticides, identifying parcel most at risk within the farm boundaries and suggesting the most appropriate risk mitigation measures for the prevention of surface water contamination. Finally, MIMERA offers the opportunity to track the risk trend of the selected pest management strategies utilized during years. The proposed methodology and structure of MIMERA are described along with underlying data and algorithms are described. An example of its application by considering different pest management strategies adopted by farmers in an area characterized by the intensive presence of maize crop in Lombardia Region is presented.
Pesticides , Agriculture/methods , Environment , Farmers , Humans , Pest Control/methods , Pesticides/analysis
Nitrogen losses from intensive agricultural production may end up as high nitrate (NO3-) concentrations in groundwater, with a long-term impact on groundwater quality. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of fertilization practices used for grape cultivation on groundwater quality of Tidone Valley, northwest of Italy, following an integrated socio-hydrogeological approach that consists on (i) the involvement of 175 farmers in the description of agricultural and fertilization practices, using a survey of ad hoc questionnaires, (ii) the evaluation of NO3- occurrence in groundwater and (iii) the identification of NO3- sources through isotopic and hydrochemical analysis. In this area, as for certain particular Apennines shallow aquifers, groundwater is of reduced interest due to its limited storage capacity and there are insufficient wells currently monitored by the local Environmental Agency (ARPAE) to evaluate the impact of agricultural fertilization on existing local aquifers. Farmers' questionnaires results highlighted an extensive use of inorganic nitrogen fertilization and a tendency of farmers to follow their own experience for fertilization. Chemical analyses revealed high variability of major and trace elements concentrations isotope data. NO3- concentrations were significantly higher in deeper wells with respects to shallow wells. Isotopic results indicated that groundwater NO3- origin is inorganic, in agreement with the land use and the declared viticultural practices. Comparing groundwater NO3- occurrence from the studied area with values of entire Emilia-Romagna Region, only 7.7% of groundwater samples showed values above the EQS. (50 mg NO3-/L) between Nov 2017 and Sept 2018, while in the entire region 11.5% of groundwater samples showed values above the EQS in the same period. Considering that the vineyards surface in the studied area represents almost 75% of the entire regional vineyard surface, the obtained results suggest a low to moderate impact of viticulture on NO3-concentration of regional groundwater.
The adoption of pesticide mitigation measures and innovation at farm level, are seen as a drivers to reach the sustainable water policy objectives. With the aim to prevent the pesticide pressure of hilly vineyards on groundwater contamination, a stepwise approach in Tidone Valley was applied using different consultation mechanisms and involvement strategies throughout the overall process. Face to face meetings, direct surveys, participatory monitoring and planning of several activities aiming to inform, educate, improve skills, change of individual behaviour or raise awareness, or even initiatives to build institutional trust or support for new investment in innovation are some examples. These activities allowed us to involve key actors of water use and governance (such as farmers, advisors, representatives of drinking water management, farmer's associations, Winemaking cooperatives, local Health Authority), and to have a deeper knowledge of the context agricultural practices, of farmer's knowledge and skills concerning factors influencing water contamination and also to promote the most suitable Best Management Practices aimed at limiting the pesticide occurrence in groundwater. Indeed, the surveys results highlighted that the majority of the farms are small (64% of vineyards <10 ha), that most of the farmers (62%) are not aware of the current legislation on water, even if 64% of them declare to participate regularly to training courses for the prevention of water contamination and that there is a low to moderate level of adoption of Best Practices able to prevent contamination by pesticides. At the end of the overall process, it can be stated that the multi-actor approach and engagement strategy adopted were successful in improving attitudes to more sustainable practices. This is supported also by the monitoring data that show in 2019 a decrease by 44% of pesticides occurrences and a fall by 68% of values above EQSgw if compared with the period 2017-2018.
Despite an improvement of water quality across Europe there are many pollution hotspots for both nitrates and PPPs, mainly due to agricultural activities. The BMPs and MMs to reduce pollution from agriculture are well known, and there are policy instruments in place to ensure drinking water standards, but the current approach has not been efficient enough. Within the H2020 Water Protect project the premise was that there is a need for a multi-actor, participatory approach to tackle the issue from a new angle, and to assess why the uptake of known BMPs and MMs was not better among farmers. Seven "Action Labs" were selected that represent major physical, socio-economical, cultural and farming settings across Europe. A methodology of multi-actor engagement was chosen but with different approaches due to the local context. Initially the level of farmers' awareness about water quality issues was matched to the observed uptake rates of BMPs and MMs. In a second survey barriers hindering the uptake of measures were identified. The first survey revealed a low general awareness on the potential pollution to drinking water sources. Despite this, between 24% to 88% of the surveyed farmers per Action Lab were already voluntarily adopting one quarter of the selected BMPs and MMs. The second survey demonstrated the need to address organisational, legislative, sociological and technical barriers. The lack of coordination between different institutional bodies promoting measures and the financial incentives needed to invest and operate these often-costly measures need to be considered. The multi-actor, participatory approach with its improved awareness and collaboration made it possible to identify the crucial factors for improvement - to build a social acceptance among all actors and communicate the issues and solutions from the start.
Currently there are no tools to accurately estimate pesticides exposure risk for residents and bystanders. European Member States have to develop specific measures and communication strategies to prevent and minimize non-occupational pesticides exposure. Moreover, these measures should be compliant with the requirements of the Directive on Sustainable Use of Pesticides. Unfortunately, there is a high degree of uncertainties in the assessment of the non-dietary exposure risk for residents, therefore risk communication passes through a deep understanding of exposure risk perception. The objective of this pilot study is to assess citizens' risk perception of non-dietary exposure to pesticides, and to assist policy-makers and risk communicators in developing targeted awareness-raising materials for residents and bystanders. Through a household survey, conducted in the rural area of the province of Piacenza (IT) we investigated knowledge, health risk perceptions, and information sources related to non-dietary exposure to agricultural pesticides in residents' indoor and outdoor environment. The factors that push individuals to give importance to several possible pollution sources and to mitigation measures or precaution, in order to protect themselves from possible exposure sources, were also investigated. Results show that even if the air quality of the residential area is not judged negatively, pesticides are perceived as air pollutants that could lead to an actual exposure and, are correlated to the health status. The perception of risk, however, does not seem to be dependent only on the distance between homes and fields. The interpretative hypothesis that the perception of the relationship between air quality and health is influenced by the cultural issue and by psycho-sensory factors and not supported by proper information, even if with some differences among age groups, it seems to be confirmed. To better transfer knowledge and communication, the commitment of those who are recognised as "competent" (doctors and researchers) is critical.
Air Pollutants/analysis , Environmental Exposure/statistics & numerical data , Health Knowledge, Attitudes, Practice , Pesticides/analysis , Environmental Exposure/analysis , Female , Humans , Italy , Male , Pilot Projects
The pesticide risk analysis process is well regulated in the EU, especially in relation to placing on the market authorisation procedures, but in order to avoid risks for human health and environment in the use phase, information on how these substances are employed and on socio-behavioural factors that can influence the exposure have to be taken into account. To better explore reasons about the gap between risk assessment and risk management, within the EU FP7 Health and Environmental Risks: Organisation, Integration and Cross-fertilisation of Scientific Knowledge (HEROIC) project, a stepwise stakeholder's consultation process was developed using a mixed approach in two different phases (survey and roundtable). We elicited stakeholder views regarding factors that could limit the pesticide risk assessment phase linked on how the knowledge is produced and the way the data are used in risk management and in risk communication, also taking into account qualitative factors such as responsibility, trust and behaviours, which could have impact on risk assessment policies. Activities deployed indicate that some changes and interaction are needed to better define the problems at the formulation stage, and the type of information risk assessor has to provide, to better inform risk manager in addressing different societal needs, to strengthen the credibility of the process of risk assessment and improve the effectiveness of policies. Integrations between disciplines may initially increase the complexity but in turn will provide a better and more useful estimation of the risk, reinforce transparency and drive a more efficient use of risk management resources.
European Union , Pesticides/adverse effects , Risk Management/methods , Community Participation , Risk Assessment/legislation & jurisprudence , Risk Assessment/methods , Risk Management/legislation & jurisprudence , Socioeconomic Factors
In 2009, the European Union adopted the Directive on Sustainable Use of pesticides (SUD, Directive 2009/128/EC) establishing a framework for achieving a sustainable use of Plant Protection Products (PPPs) through reducing the risks and impacts of PPP use on human health and the environment, promoting integrated pest management and stimulating effective non-chemical alternatives. The core idea of the SUD is that it is necessary to monitor the use of PPPs through the implementation of an appropriate set of risk indicators to monitor progress and trends in risk reduction within the Member States. To contribute to this direction, following a comprehensive analysis of the risk (including procedures of risk assessment and risk management) and involving stakeholders in the decision process, specific toolboxes of practical indirect risk indicators of exposure of Operators, Workers, Bystanders and Residents were developed and are now available to be used by Member States (MSs) based on their specific context.
Environmental Pollutants/analysis , Pest Control/methods , Pesticides/analysis , Risk Management/methods , European Union , Humans , Risk Assessment/methods , Risk Factors
BACKGROUND: In 2008-2009, a survey in the Emilia Romagna region of Italy collected information on the farm use of plant protection products (PPPs) and evaluated whether the provisions of the Directive for the Sustainable Use of Pesticides are applicable. It was concluded that the provisions can be implemented, even if some gaps need to be filled and also the behaviour of farmers needs to be improved. Moreover, it was observed that all stages in the use of PPPs on farms could generate risks for the operator and/or the environment. One of the recommendations is to promote training for operators and to adopt good agronomic practices in order to improve sustainable use of PPPs. RESULTS: The findings were used, in the following years, to develop a Guideline for Sustainable Use of PPPs to help the user in identifying the flaws in current practices at farm level as well as their corresponding corrective actions. The Guidelines are accompanied by free online software to be used as a diagnostic tool as well as to provide recommendations for improvements. CONCLUSION: The approach adopted, taking into account the variability in farm structure, cropping pattern, risk attitude and economic availability, is not an instrument to identify the most suitable protection strategy for a given crop in a given period, but to help professional users to improve their practices in managing PPPs on farms and to make the most appropriate choices leading to reduced environmental and human risk, without compromising the profitability of agricultural production and food standards. This work has, as an underlying principle, a holistic approach to link the different elements of the three pillars of sustainability (environment, economy and society) and to enhance knowledge, which represents one of the main aspects of the Directive.
Agriculture/legislation & jurisprudence , Crops, Agricultural/drug effects , Pesticides/analysis , Agriculture/methods , Agriculture/standards , Crops, Agricultural/growth & development , Guidelines as Topic , Humans , Italy , Knowledge , Pesticides/standards , Software
In October 2009, the Council of the European Union adopted the Directive on Sustainable Use of Pesticides (EU 128/2009/EC). This directive establishes a framework to achieve the sustainable use of pesticides by reducing the risk and impacts of pesticide use on both human health and the environment, and promoting the use of integrated pest management and of alternative approaches or techniques. These risks thus need to be assessed using appropriate risk indicators. The OPERA Research Centre organised an expert working group and has had several consultations with stakeholders in order to identify a common way of thinking in evaluating and identifying the factors that should be considered in selecting each indicator. Harmonised criteria have been suggested to allow the selection of the most appropriate indicators, focusing on the use phase of pesticide, as requested by the sustainable use directive. The proposed methodology has led to a sharing of perspectives and knowledge between the experts involved, and some principles have been identified to help national regulatory institutions to estimate general trends in pesticide risk reduction.
Pest Control/standards , Pesticides , European Union , Risk Reduction Behavior
In September 2009, the Council of the European Union adopted the Directive on Sustainable Use of Pesticides (SUD). The core idea is that in order to achieve sustainable use of pesticides, it is necessary that everyone is conscious about the risks to both human health and the environment associated with the use of plant protection products. Therefore, in the SUD, training and raising awareness play key roles in order to achieve the objectives of the directive. In this sense, the European-founded project BROWSE (Bystanders, Residents, Operators and WorkerS Exposure models for plant protection products) has, as one of its main objectives, to contribute to the implementation of the SUD through the development and dissemination of communication materials for training and raising awareness. For this reason, a consultation process was implemented involving all relevant stakeholders in order to identify their opinions regarding the subjects to be prioritised, the factors influencing pesticide exposure to be focused on and the most suitable formats to develop training and awareness-raising material as well as identification of target groups. To collect the required information, participants were asked to answer an electronic questionnaire (giving the possibility through several debates for additional comments). The collected findings and the ensuing debates are described in this article and are going to be taken into account in the development of the BROWSE training and communication material for the raising of awareness.
Community Participation/methods , Community-Institutional Relations , Green Chemistry Technology/education , Models, Theoretical , Pesticides/toxicity , Environmental Exposure/analysis , European Union , Green Chemistry Technology/methods , Humans , Occupational Exposure/analysis
A 'step-by-step' method was used to develop a simplified procedure for calculating pesticide residue levels on fruit at harvest by considering the application of the compound and the relevant routes of loss. The model is applicable to cases where the most important exposure route is by direct spray to the canopy of the crop and where uptake into the plant by the roots can be disregarded. The exposure dose is calculated by considering the proportion of total crop cover represented by the fruits. The loss processes considered are photodegradation, uptake, volatilization and washoff. The outputs of the model were compared with measured residues of pesticides on pear. Analysis of the model fit demonstrates that the model predicted the measured data with a good level of accuracy for four of seven investigated pesticides. The predicted/observed quotients are close to 1, as is the modelling efficiency, and there are no great differences between the predicted and observed values. Taking into account the extreme simplicity of the model and the complexity of the environmental processes considered, these results encourage further research into the modelling of residue behaviour in food commodities. The objectives of this work were to produce a tool to predict pesticide residues in products of plant origin, to complement monitoring of pesticide levels and to be useful in evaluating the effect of government policies on food safety. All predicted values were below the maximum levels fixed for pesticide residues in pear, as amended in Council Directives 86/362/EEC and 90/642/EEC.
Environmental Monitoring/methods , Fruit/chemistry , Models, Biological , Pesticide Residues/metabolism , Pyrus/chemistry , Fruit/metabolism , Models, Theoretical , Predictive Value of Tests , Pyrus/metabolism , Volatilization
To provide a harmonised European approach for pesticide risk indicators, the Sixth EU Framework Programme recently financed the HAIR (HArmonised environmental Indicators for pesticide Risk) project. This paper illustrates the methodology underlying a new indicator-HAPERITIF (HArmonised PEsticide RIsk Trend Indicator for Food), developed in HAIR, for tracking acute and chronic pesticide risk trends for consumers. The acute indicator, HAPERITIF(ac), is based on the ratio between an estimated short-term intake (ESTI), calculated as recommended by the World Health Organisation (WHO), and the acute reference dose (ARfD); the chronic indicator HAPERITIF(chr) is based on the ratio between an estimated daily intake (EDI) and the admissible daily intake (ADI). HAPERITIF can be applied at different levels of aggregation. Each level gives information for proper risk management of pesticides to reduce the risk associated with food consumption. An example of application using realistic scenarios of pesticide treatments on a potato crop in central-northern Italy is reported to illustrate the different steps of HAPERITIF.
Environmental Monitoring , Food Contamination , Pesticide Residues , Geography , Italy , Models, Theoretical , Risk Assessment , Solanum tuberosum/parasitology , Time Factors
A methodology to develop a GIS-based system for the surface water risk assessment of agricultural chemicals is described. It is based on the integration of relational and spatial databases, GIS incorporating raster and vector, mass balance models, and pesticide risks indicators. Surface water pollution was modeled by taking into account two main processes: the load due to drift and the load due to a rainfall-runoff event. The former is immediately consequent to pesticide application; the second occurs a short period afterward. Thus two distinct PEC (predicted environmental concentration) values were estimated, differing in time. A pilot approach was applied to the herbicide alachlor on corn in Lombardia region (northern Italy) and represents the first stage of a wider project. Although the resultant alachlor PEC and risk maps represent a static image of a worst-case simulation, the main objective was to provide information for the territory with respect to relative risks at the watershed level, which is important in managing risks to the aquatic environment. The driving forces and spatial variability of the above-mentioned processes were investigated to improve knowledge about the territory and to indicate the need for more detailed site-specific studies.
Geography , Information Systems , Pesticides/adverse effects , Agriculture , Environmental Monitoring , Pesticides/analysis , Risk Assessment , Water Pollutants, Chemical
