Systems of Care Factors Should Be Considered in Regionalization of Congenital Cardiac Surgery.

BACKGROUND: Regionalization of care has been proposed to optimize outcomes in congenital cardiac surgery (CCS). We hypothesized that hospital infrastructure and systems of care factors could also be considered in regionalization efforts. METHODS: Observed-to-expected (O/E) mortality ratio and hospital volumes were obtained between 2015 and 2018 from public reporting data. Using a resource dependence framework, we examined factors obtained from American Hospital Association, Children's Hospital Association, and hospital websites. Linear regression models were estimated with volume only, then with hospital factors, stratified by procedural complexity. Robust regression models were reestimated to assess the impact of outliers. RESULTS: We found wide variation in the volume of congenital cardiac surgeries performed (89-3920) and in the surgical outcomes (O/E ratio range, 0.3-3.1). Six outlier hospitals performed few high-complexity cases with high mortality. Univariate analysis including all cases indicated that higher volume predicted lower O/E ratio (ß = -0.02; SE = 0.008; P = .011). However, this effect was driven by the most complex cases. Models stratified by The Society of Thoracic Surgeons-European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery category show that volume is a significant predictor only in category 5 cases (ß = -1.707; SE = 0.663; P = .012). Robust univariate regression accounting for outliers found no effect of volume on O/E ratio (ß = 0.005; SE = 0.002; P = .975). Elimination of outliers through robust multivariate regression decreased the volume-outcome relationship and found a modest relationship between health plan ownership and outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Systems of care factors should be considered in addition to volume in designing regionalization in CCS. Patient-level data sets will better define these factors.

A Statewide Approach to Reducing Re-excision Rates for Women With Breast-conserving Surgery.

OBJECTIVE: Test the effectiveness of benchmarked performance reports based on existing discharge data paired with a statewide intervention to implement evidence-based strategies on breast re-excision rates. BACKGROUND: Breast-conserving surgery (BCS) is a common breast cancer surgery performed in a range of hospital settings. Studies have demonstrated variations in post-BCS re-excision rates, identifying it as a high-value improvement target. METHODS: Wisconsin Hospital Association discharge data (2017-2019) were used to compare 60-day re-excision rates following BCS for breast cancer. The analysis estimated the difference in the average change preintervention to postintervention between Surgical Collaborative of Wisconsin (SCW) and nonparticipating hospitals using a logistic mixed-effects model with repeated measures, adjusting for age, payer, and hospital volume, including hospitals as random effects. The intervention included 5 collaborative meetings in 2018 to 2019 where surgeon champions shared guideline updates, best practices/challenges, and facilitated action planning. Confidential benchmarked performance reports were provided. RESULTS: In 2017, there were 3692 breast procedures in SCW and 1279 in nonparticipating hospitals; hospital-level re-excision rates ranged from 5% to >50%. There was no statistically significant baseline difference in re-excision rates between SCW and nonparticipating hospitals (16.1% vs. 17.1%, P =0.47). Re-excision significantly decreased for SCW but not for nonparticipating hospitals (odds ratio=0.69, 95% confidence interval=0.52-0.91). CONCLUSIONS: Benchmarked performance reports and collaborative quality improvement can decrease post-BCS re-excisions, increase quality, and decrease costs. Our study demonstrates the effective use of administrative data as a platform for statewide quality collaboratives. Using existing data requires fewer resources and offers a new paradigm that promotes participation across practice settings.

Driving Time to Trauma Centers for Children Living in Wisconsin.

INTRODUCTION: Trauma is the number 1 cause of death among children. Shorter distance to definitive trauma care has been correlated with better clinical outcomes. There are only a small number of pediatric trauma centers (PTC) designated by the American College of Surgeons, and the resources available to treat injured children at non-PTCs are limited. To guide resource allocation and advocacy efforts for pediatric trauma care in Wisconsin, we determined the precise distance to trauma centers for all children living in the state. METHODS: The 2010 US Census data was used to determine ZIP-centroid geolocation. The Wisconsin Department of Health Services trauma classification database was used to identify trauma facilities in Wisconsin. SAS routines invoking the Google Maps application programming interface were used to calculate the driving distance to each of the trauma facilities. We quantified the percentage of children living within 30- and 60-minute driving distances of level I-IV trauma centers. RESULTS: Just 31.3% of Wisconsin children live within a 30-minute drive of a level I PTC; 32.7% live within 30 minutes of a level II center; 81.3% within 30 minutes of a level III center; and 74.6% within 30 minutes of a level IV center. CONCLUSION: Two-thirds of children in Wisconsin live beyond a 30-minute driving distance of a level I PTC, but most children live within 30 minutes of level III and IV trauma centers. As the closest hospitals for most children, smaller trauma centers should be adequately resourced to provide pediatric trauma care.

Opioid prescribing to preteen children undergoing ambulatory surgery in the United States.

BACKGROUND: Overuse and misuse of opioids is a continuing crisis. The most common reason for children to receive opioids is postoperative pain, and they are often prescribed more than needed. The amount of opioids prescribed varies widely, even for minor ambulatory procedures. This study uses a large national sample to describe filled opioid prescriptions to preteen patients after all ambulatory surgical procedures and common standard procedures. METHODS: We analyzed Truven Health MarketScan data for July 2012 through December 2016 to perform descriptive analyses of opioid fills by age and geographic area, change over time, second opioid fills in opioid-naïve patients, and variation in the types and amount of medication prescribed for 18 common and standard procedures in otolaryngology, urology, general surgery, ophthalmology, and orthopedics. RESULTS: Over 10% of preteen children filled perioperative opioid prescriptions for ambulatory surgery in the period 2012 to 2016. The amount prescribed varied widely (median 5 days' supply, IQR 3-8, range 1-90), even for the most minor procedures, for example, frenotomy (median 4 days' supply, IQR 2-5, range 1-60). Codeine fills were common despite safety concerns. Second opioid prescriptions were filled by opioid-naïve patients after almost all procedures studied. The rate of prescribing declined significantly over time and varied substantially by age and across census regions. CONCLUSIONS: We identified opioid prescribing outside of the norms of standard practice in all of the specialties studied. Standardizing perioperative opioid prescribing and developing guidelines on appropriate prescribing for children may reduce the opioids available for misuse and diversion.

Continued Prescribing of Periprocedural Codeine and Tramadol to Children after a Black Box Warning.

BACKGROUND: Codeine and tramadol are commonly used analgesics in surgery. In 2013, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued a contraindication to the use of codeine in tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy patients aged below 18 y. This warning was expanded in April 2017 to include tramadol and all children aged below 12 y. We sought to describe the prescribing of codeine and tramadol to contraindicated populations in Wisconsin before and after the release of the expanded FDA warning. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Using a statewide Wisconsin claims database, we identified common pediatric ambulatory surgical procedures across the specialties of otolaryngology, urology, general surgery, orthopedics, and ophthalmology. For these procedures, we examined the rates of perioperative codeine and tramadol prescription fills and change in prescribing after the FDA contraindication. RESULTS: Surgeons in all of the specialties studied continued to prescribe codeine to pediatric patients after the contraindication, but tramadol was rarely prescribed. Procedures with relatively high rates of codeine fills were strabismus repair (65% of opioid fills), circumcision >1 yo (22%), and laparoscopic appendectomy (15%). Codeine fills significantly declined after the contraindication to 6% for circumcision >1 yo and 5% for orchiopexy and inguinal hernia repair. Otolaryngology, which was subject to the 2013 codeine contraindication, has low rates of codeine fills (under 2.5%) for the whole period studied. Codeine prescribing for strabismus repair showed no significant decline. CONCLUSIONS: Codeine, and to a lesser extent tramadol, continue to be prescribed to contraindicated populations of children. This represents a target for future de-implementation interventions.

Age-Dependent Costs and Complications in Pediatric Umbilical Hernia Repair.

OBJECTIVES: To characterize regional variation in the age of patients undergoing umbilical hernia repair to determine costs and subsequent care. STUDY DESIGN: We performed a cross-sectional descriptive study using a large convenience sample of US employer-based insurance claims from July 2012 to December 2015. We identified children younger than 18 years of age undergoing uncomplicated (not strangulated, incarcerated, or gangrenous) umbilical hernia repair as an isolated procedure (International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision procedure codes 53.41, 53.42, 53.43, or 53.49, International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision procedure code 0WQF0ZZ, or Current Procedural Terminology procedure codes 49580 or 49585). RESULTS: In all, 5212 children met criteria for inclusion. Children younger than age 2 years accounted for 9.7% of repairs, with significant variation by census region (6% to 14%, P < .001). Total payments for surgery varied by age; children younger than 2 years averaged $8219 and payments for older children were $6137. Postoperative admissions occurred at a rate of 73.1 per 1000 for children younger than age 2 years and 7.43 for older children; emergency department visits were 41.5 per 1000 for children younger than age 2 years vs 15.9 for older children (P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Umbilical hernias continue to be repaired at early ages with large regional variation. Umbilical hernia repair younger than age 2 years is associated with greater costs and greater frequency of postoperative hospitalization and emergency department visits.

Diagnostic performance of standardized ultrasound protocol for detecting perforation in pediatric appendicitis.

BACKGROUND: Recent clinical trials in adults and children have shown that uncomplicated acute appendicitis can be successfully treated with antibiotics alone. As treatment strategies for acute appendicitis diverge, accurate preoperative diagnosis of complicated appendicitis and appendiceal perforation has become increasingly important for clinical decision-making. OBJECTIVE: To examine diagnostic performance of ultrasound for detecting perforated appendicitis in a single institution using a standardized technique. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this retrospective single-center study we evaluated 113 ultrasounds from pediatric patients who underwent appendectomy between November 2014 and December 2015. All ultrasounds were performed using a standardized US protocol including still and cine images of all four abdominal quadrants, with more targeted evaluation of the right lower quadrant (RLQ) using graded compression technique. We compared US findings to intraoperative diagnosis of non-perforated or perforated acute appendicitis. RESULTS: The standardized image protocol generated a reproducible set of ultrasound images in all cases. The most common primary appendiceal finding on US in perforated appendicitis was appendix wall thickening >3 mm (54%, 171/314) and most common secondary finding was echogenic mesenteric fat (75%, 237/314). Thinning of the appendix wall and loculated fluid collection in the right lower quadrant were both highly specific (>90%) for perforation. CONCLUSION: The diagnostic performance of ultrasound using a standardized US technique was similar to that reported in prior studies for detecting perforated appendicitis. Despite low sensitivity, individual ultrasound findings and overall diagnostic impression of "evidence of appendix perforation" remain highly specific.

National variation in opioid prescribing after pediatric umbilical hernia repair.

BACKGROUND: Pediatric umbilical hernia repair is a common procedure that requires minimal tissue disruption. We examined variation in opioid prescription fills after repair of uncomplicated umbilical hernias to characterize the types and doses of medication used and persistent postsurgical use. METHODS: Using the Truven Health Analytics MarketScan© Research Database for June 2012-September 2015, we identified pediatric patients undergoing umbilical hernia repair. We excluded patients with obstruction, gangrene, an earlier repair or a concurrent surgical procedure, and those without available pharmacy claim data. Analyses describe filled outpatient prescriptions by age, geographic region, drug type, quantity, and second prescriptions/refills. RESULTS: Of 4,407 procedures performed, 2,292 patients (52%) filled a prescription for postoperative opioids (age 0-1 years: 21.6%, age 2-3 years: 51.5%, age 4-5 years: 54.3%, 6 years or older: 57.9% [P < .0001]). In the northeast United States, 42% of patients filled narcotic prescriptions, compared with 59% of patients in the south (P < .0001). Hydrocodone/acetaminophen was most commonly prescribed (51%), followed by codeine/acetaminophen (30%). Durations were ≤3 days (50%), 4-10 days (46%), and >10 days (4%). A total of 6% of patients filled a second opioid prescription within 30 days. CONCLUSION: Although many patients do not require opioids for umbilical hernia repair, most pediatric patients fill opioid prescriptions, including for prolonged courses and refills. Guidelines for appropriate prescribing of opioids after common, simple procedures, such as umbilical hernia repair, could improve the quality of care for children and impact the US epidemic of opioid abuse.

The impact of secure messaging on workflow in primary care: Results of a multiple-case, multiple-method study.

INTRODUCTION: Secure messaging is a relatively new addition to health information technology (IT). Several studies have examined the impact of secure messaging on (clinical) outcomes but very few studies have examined the impact on workflow in primary care clinics. In this study we examined the impact of secure messaging on workflow of clinicians, staff and patients. METHODS: We used a multiple case study design with multiple data collections methods (observation, interviews and survey). RESULTS: Results show that secure messaging has the potential to improve communication and information flow and the organization of work in primary care clinics, partly due to the possibility of asynchronous communication. However, secure messaging can also have a negative effect on communication and increase workload, especially if patients send messages that are not appropriate for the secure messaging medium (for example, messages that are too long, complex, ambiguous, or inappropriate). Results show that clinicians are ambivalent about secure messaging. Secure messaging can add to their workload, especially if there is high message volume, and currently they are not compensated for these activities. Staff is -especially compared to clinicians- relatively positive about secure messaging and patients are overall very satisfied with secure messaging. Finally, clinicians, staff and patients think that secure messaging can have a positive effect on quality of care and patient safety. CONCLUSION: Secure messaging is a tool that has the potential to improve communication and information flow. However, the potential of secure messaging to improve workflow is dependent on the way it is implemented and used.

How Do Residents Spend Their Time in the Intensive Care Unit?

PURPOSE: To describe the work of residents and the distribution of their time in 6 intensive care units (ICUs) of 2 medical centers (MCs). METHODS: A total of 242 hours of observation to capture data on tasks performed by residents in 6 ICUs, including adult, pediatric, medical and surgical units, were conducted. For each observation period, the percentages of total time spent on each task and on the aggregated task categories were calculated. RESULTS: Overall, while in the ICUs, residents spent almost half of their time in clinical review and documentation (19%), conversation with team physicians (16%), conversation attendance (6%) and order management (6%). The 2 MCs differed in the time that residents spent on administrative review and documentation (4% in one MC and 15% in the other). The pediatric ICUs were similar in the 2 MCs, whereas the adult ICUs exhibited differences in the time spent on order management and administrative review and documentation. CONCLUSIONS: While in the ICUs, residents spent most time performing direct patient care and care coordination activities. The distribution of activities varied across 2 MCs and across ICUs, which highlights the need to consider the local context on residents' work in ICUs.

Impact of electronic health record technology on the work and workflow of physicians in the intensive care unit.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the impact of EHR technology on the work and workflow of ICU physicians and compare time spent by ICU resident and attending physicians on various tasks before and after EHR implementation. DESIGN: EHR technology with electronic order management (CPOE, medication administration and pharmacy system) and physician documentation was implemented in October 2007. MEASUREMENT: We collected a total of 289 h of observation pre- and post-EHR implementation. We directly observed the work of residents in three ICUs (adult medical/surgical ICU, pediatric ICU and neonatal ICU) and attending physicians in one ICU (adult medical/surgical ICU). RESULTS: EHR implementation had an impact on the time distribution of tasks as well as the temporal patterns of tasks. After EHR implementation, both residents and attending physicians spent more of their time on clinical review and documentation (40% and 55% increases, respectively). EHR implementation also affected the frequency of switching between tasks, which increased for residents (from 117 to 154 tasks per hour) but decreased for attendings (from 138 to 106 tasks per hour), and the temporal flow of tasks, in particular around what tasks occurred before and after clinical review and documentation. No changes in the time spent in conversational tasks or the physical care of the patient were observed. CONCLUSIONS: The use of EHR technology has a major impact on ICU physician work (e.g., increased time spent on clinical review and documentation) and workflow (e.g., clinical review and documentation becoming the focal point of many other tasks). Further studies should evaluate the impact of changes in physician work on the quality of care provided.

The effects of Computerized Provider Order Entry implementation on communication in Intensive Care Units.

The literature shows that communication in health care is one of the most important factors associated with quality of care and patients safety. Especially in Intensive Care Units (ICUs) communication is of importance, due to the characteristics of the setting. However, relatively little is known about the different aspects of communication in health care and how Computerized Provider Order Entry (CPOE) implementation may impact communication, and consequently, quality of care. In this study we adapted an existing questionnaire developed by Shortell et al. to examine the impact of CPOE implementation on communication in a repeated cross-sectional design (6 months before implementation, 3 months after implementation and one-year after implementation). Results show overall that CPOE did not have a negative effect on communication, especially in the long term.

Changes in end-user satisfaction with Computerized Provider Order Entry over time among nurses and providers in intensive care units.

BACKGROUND: Implementation of Computerized Provider Order Entry (CPOE) has many potential advantages. Despite the potential benefits of CPOE, several attempts to implement CPOE systems have failed or met with high levels of user resistance. Implementation of CPOE can fail or meet high levels of user resistance for a variety of reasons, including lack of attention to users' needs and the significant workflow changes required by CPOE. User satisfaction is a critical factor in information technology implementation. Little is known about how end-user satisfaction with CPOE changes over time. OBJECTIVE: To examine ordering provider and nurse satisfaction with CPOE implementation over time. METHODS: We conducted a repeated cross-sectional questionnaire survey in four intensive care units of a large hospital. We analyzed the questionnaire data as well as the responses to two open-ended questions about advantages and disadvantages of CPOE. RESULTS: Users were moderately satisfied with CPOE and there were interesting differences between user groups: ordering providers and nurses. User satisfaction with CPOE did not change over time for providers, but it did improve significantly for nurses. Results also show that nurses and providers are satisfied with different aspects of CPOE.

Impact of electronic order management on the timeliness of antibiotic administration in critical care patients.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the effect of implementing electronic order management on the timely administration of antibiotics to critical-care patients. METHODS: We used a prospective pre-post design, collecting data on first-dose IV antibiotic orders before and after the implementation of an integrated electronic medication-management system, which included computerized provider order entry (CPOE), pharmacy order processing and an electronic medication administration record (eMAR). The research was performed in a 24-bed adult medical/surgical ICU in a large, rural, tertiary medical center. Data on the time of ordering, pharmacy processing and administration were prospectively collected and time intervals for each stage and the overall process were calculated. RESULTS: The overall turnaround time from ordering to administration significantly decreased from a median of 100 min before order management implementation to a median of 64 min after implementation. The first part of the medication use process, i.e., from order entry to pharmacy processing, improved significantly whereas no change was observed in the phase from pharmacy processing to medication administration. DISCUSSION: The implementation of an electronic order-management system improved the timeliness of antibiotic administration to critical-care patients. Additional system changes are required to further decrease the turnaround time.

Factors contributing to an increase in duplicate medication order errors after CPOE implementation.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the incidence of duplicate medication orders before and after computerized provider order entry (CPOE) with clinical decision support (CDS) implementation and identify contributing factors. DESIGN: CPOE with duplicate medication order alerts was implemented in a 400-bed Northeastern US community tertiary care teaching hospital. In a pre-implementation post-implementation design, trained nurses used chart review, computer-generated reports of medication orders, provider alerts, and staff reports to identify medication errors in two intensive care units (ICUs). MEASUREMENT: Medication error data were adjudicated by a physician and a human factors engineer for error stage and type. A qualitative analysis of duplicate medication ordering errors was performed to identify contributing factors. RESULTS: Data were collected for 4147 patient-days pre-implementation and 4013 patient-days post-implementation. Duplicate medication ordering errors increased after CPOE implementation (pre: 48 errors, 2.6% total; post: 167 errors, 8.1% total; p<0.0001). Most post-implementation duplicate orders were either for the identical order or the same medication. Contributing factors included: (1) provider ordering practices and computer availability, for example, two orders placed within minutes by different providers on rounds; (2) communication and hand-offs, for example, duplicate orders around shift change; (3) CDS and medication database design, for example confusing alert content, high false-positive alert rate, and CDS algorithms missing true duplicates; (4) CPOE data display, for example, difficulty reviewing existing orders; and (5) local CDS design, for example, medications in order sets defaulted as ordered. CONCLUSIONS: Duplicate medication order errors increased with CPOE and CDS implementation. Many work system factors, including the CPOE, CDS, and medication database design, contributed to their occurrence.

Development and Psychometric Qualities of the SEIPS Survey to Evaluate CPOE/EHR Implementation in ICUs.

Health Information Technology (IT) implementation can fail or meet high levels of user resistance for a variety of reasons, including lack of attention to users' needs and the significant workflow changes induced and required by the technology. End-user satisfaction is a critical factor in health IT implementation. In this paper we describe the process of developing and testing a questionnaire to evaluate health IT implementation, in particular Computerized Provider Order Entry (CPOE) and Electronic Health Record (EHR) technologies. Results showed evidence for the validity and reliability of the questionnaire. The Systems Engineering Initiative for Patient Safety (SEIPS) questionnaire is relatively easy to administer and allows researchers to evaluate different aspects of health IT implementation. Results of this research can be used for benchmarking results of future studies evaluating health IT implementation.