The orphan ligand, activin C, signals through activin receptor-like kinase 7.

Activin ligands are formed from two disulfide-linked inhibin ß (Inhß) subunit chains. They exist as homodimeric proteins, as in the case of activin A (ActA; InhßA/InhßA) or activin C (ActC; InhßC/InhßC), or as heterodimers, as with activin AC (ActAC; InhßA:InhßC). While the biological functions of ActA and activin B (ActB) have been well characterized, little is known about the biological functions of ActC or ActAC. One thought is that the InhßC chain functions to interfere with ActA production by forming less active ActAC heterodimers. Here, we assessed and characterized the signaling capacity of ligands containing the InhßC chain. ActC and ActAC activated SMAD2/3-dependent signaling via the type I receptor, activin receptor-like kinase 7 (ALK7). Relative to ActA and ActB, ActC exhibited lower affinity for the cognate activin type II receptors and was resistant to neutralization by the extracellular antagonist, follistatin. In mature murine adipocytes, which exhibit high ALK7 expression, ActC elicited a SMAD2/3 response similar to ActB, which can also signal via ALK7. Collectively, these results establish that ActC and ActAC are active ligands that exhibit a distinct signaling receptor and antagonist profile compared to other activins.

Sotatercept analog suppresses inflammation to reverse experimental pulmonary arterial hypertension.

Sotatercept is an activin receptor type IIA-Fc (ActRIIA-Fc) fusion protein that improves cardiopulmonary function in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) by selectively trapping activins and growth differentiation factors. However, the cellular and molecular mechanisms of ActRIIA-Fc action are incompletely understood. Here, we determined through genome-wide expression profiling that inflammatory and immune responses are prominently upregulated in the lungs of a Sugen-hypoxia rat model of severe angio-obliterative PAH, concordant with profiles observed in PAH patients. Therapeutic treatment with ActRIIA-Fc-but not with a vasodilator-strikingly reversed proinflammatory and proliferative gene expression profiles and normalized macrophage infiltration in diseased rodent lungs. Furthermore, ActRIIA-Fc normalized pulmonary macrophage infiltration and corrected cardiopulmonary structure and function in Bmpr2 haploinsufficient mice subjected to hypoxia, a model of heritable PAH. Three high-affinity ligands of ActRIIA-Fc each induced macrophage activation in vitro, and their combined immunoneutralization in PAH rats produced cardiopulmonary benefits comparable to those elicited by ActRIIA-Fc. Our results in complementary experimental and genetic models of PAH reveal therapeutic anti-inflammatory activities of ActRIIA-Fc that, together with its known anti-proliferative effects on vascular cell types, could underlie clinical activity of sotatercept as either monotherapy or add-on to current PAH therapies.

Structures of activin ligand traps using natural sets of type I and type II TGFß receptors.

The 30+ unique ligands of the TGFß family signal by forming complexes using different combinations of type I and type II receptors. Therapeutically, the extracellular domain of a single receptor fused to an Fc molecule can effectively neutralize subsets of ligands. Increased ligand specificity can be accomplished by using the extracellular domains of both the type I and type II receptor to mimic the naturally occurring signaling complex. Here, we report the structure of one "type II-type I-Fc" fusion, ActRIIB-Alk4-Fc, in complex with two TGFß family ligands, ActA, and GDF11, providing a snapshot of this therapeutic platform. The study reveals that extensive contacts are formed by both receptors, replicating the ternary signaling complex, despite the inherent low affinity of Alk4. Our study shows that low-affinity type I interactions support altered ligand specificity and can be visualized at the molecular level using this platform.

Functionally diverse heteromeric traps for ligands of the transforming growth factor-ß superfamily.

Ligands of the transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß) superfamily are important targets for therapeutic intervention but present challenges because they signal combinatorially and exhibit overlapping activities in vivo. To obtain agents capable of sequestering multiple TGF-ß superfamily ligands with novel selectivity, we generated soluble, heterodimeric ligand traps by pairing the extracellular domain (ECD) of the native activin receptor type IIB (ActRIIB) alternately with the ECDs of native type I receptors activin receptor-like kinase 4 (ALK4), ALK7, or ALK3. Systematic analysis of these heterodimeric constructs by surface plasmon resonance, and comparison with their homodimeric counterparts, revealed that each type I receptor partner confers a distinct ligand-binding profile to the heterodimeric construct. Additional characterization in cell-based reporter gene assays confirmed that the heterodimeric constructs possessed different profiles of signaling inhibition in vitro, which translated into altered patterns of pharmacological activity when constructs were administered systemically to wild-type mice. Our results detail a versatile platform for the modular recombination of naturally occurring receptor domains, giving rise to inhibitory ligand traps that could aid in defining the physiological roles of TGF-ß ligand sets or be directed therapeutically to human diseases arising from dysregulated TGF-ß superfamily signaling.

ActRIIB:ALK4-Fc alleviates muscle dysfunction and comorbidities in murine models of neuromuscular disorders.

Patients with neuromuscular disorders suffer from a lack of treatment options for skeletal muscle weakness and disease comorbidities. Here, we introduce as a potential therapeutic agent a heterodimeric ligand-trapping fusion protein, ActRIIB:ALK4-Fc, which comprises extracellular domains of activin-like kinase 4 (ALK4) and activin receptor type IIB (ActRIIB), a naturally occurring pair of type I and II receptors belonging to the TGF-ß superfamily. By surface plasmon resonance (SPR), ActRIIB:ALK4-Fc exhibited a ligand binding profile distinctly different from that of its homodimeric variant ActRIIB-Fc, sequestering ActRIIB ligands known to inhibit muscle growth but not trapping the vascular regulatory ligand bone morphogenetic protein 9 (BMP9). ActRIIB:ALK4-Fc and ActRIIB-Fc administered to mice exerted differential effects - concordant with SPR results - on vessel outgrowth in a retinal explant assay. ActRIIB:ALK4-Fc induced a systemic increase in muscle mass and function in wild-type mice and in murine models of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and disuse atrophy. Importantly, ActRIIB:ALK4-Fc improved neuromuscular junction abnormalities in murine models of DMD and presymptomatic ALS and alleviated acute muscle fibrosis in a DMD model. Furthermore, in combination therapy ActRIIB:ALK4-Fc increased the efficacy of antisense oligonucleotide M12-PMO on dystrophin expression and skeletal muscle endurance in an aged DMD model. ActRIIB:ALK4-Fc shows promise as a therapeutic agent, alone or in combination with dystrophin rescue therapy, to alleviate muscle weakness and comorbidities of neuromuscular disorders.

Structural characterization of an activin class ternary receptor complex reveals a third paradigm for receptor specificity.

TGFß family ligands, which include the TGFßs, BMPs, and activins, signal by forming a ternary complex with type I and type II receptors. For TGFßs and BMPs, structures of ternary complexes have revealed differences in receptor assembly. However, structural information for how activins assemble a ternary receptor complex is lacking. We report the structure of an activin class member, GDF11, in complex with the type II receptor ActRIIB and the type I receptor Alk5. The structure reveals that receptor positioning is similar to the BMP class, with no interreceptor contacts; however, the type I receptor interactions are shifted toward the ligand fingertips and away from the dimer interface. Mutational analysis shows that ligand type I specificity is derived from differences in the fingertips of the ligands that interact with an extended loop specific to Alk4 and Alk5. The study also reveals differences for how TGFß and GDF11 bind to the same type I receptor, Alk5. For GDF11, additional contacts at the fingertip region substitute for the interreceptor interactions that are seen for TGFß, indicating that Alk5 binding to GDF11 is more dependent on direct contacts. In support, we show that a single residue of Alk5 (Phe84), when mutated, abolishes GDF11 signaling, but has little impact on TGFß signaling. The structure of GDF11/ActRIIB/Alk5 shows that, across the TGFß family, different mechanisms regulate type I receptor binding and specificity, providing a molecular explanation for how the activin class accommodates low-affinity type I interactions without the requirement of cooperative receptor interactions.

Follistatin-288-Fc Fusion Protein Promotes Localized Growth of Skeletal Muscle.

Follistatin is an endogenous glycoprotein that promotes growth and repair of skeletal muscle by sequestering inhibitory ligands of the transforming growth factor-ß superfamily and may therefore have therapeutic potential for neuromuscular diseases. Here, we sought to determine the suitability of a newly engineered follistatin fusion protein (FST288-Fc) to promote localized, rather than systemic, growth of skeletal muscle by capitalizing on the intrinsic heparin-binding ability of the follistatin-288 isoform. As determined by surface plasmon resonance and cell-based assays, FST288-Fc binds to activin A, activin B, myostatin (growth differentiation factor GDF8), and GDF11 with high affinity and neutralizes their activity in vitro. Intramuscular administration of FST288-Fc in mice induced robust, dose-dependent growth of the targeted muscle but not of surrounding or contralateral muscles, in contrast to the systemic effects of a locally administered fusion protein incorporating activin receptor type IIB (ActRIIB-Fc). Furthermore, systemic administration of FST288-Fc in mice did not alter muscle mass or body composition as determined by NMR, which again contrasts with the pronounced systemic activity of ActRIIB-Fc when administered by the same route. Subsequent analysis revealed that FST288-Fc in the circulation undergoes rapid proteolysis, thereby restricting its activity to individual muscles targeted by intramuscular administration. These results indicate that FST288-Fc can produce localized growth of skeletal muscle in a targeted manner with reduced potential for undesirable systemic effects. Thus, FST288-Fc and similar agents may be beneficial in the treatment of disorders with muscle atrophy that is focal, asymmetric, or otherwise heterogeneous.

Soluble endoglin specifically binds bone morphogenetic proteins 9 and 10 via its orphan domain, inhibits blood vessel formation, and suppresses tumor growth.

Endoglin (CD105), a transmembrane protein of the transforming growth factor ß superfamily, plays a crucial role in angiogenesis. Mutations in endoglin result in the vascular defect known as hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT1). The soluble form of endoglin was suggested to contribute to the pathogenesis of preeclampsia. To obtain further insight into its function, we cloned, expressed, purified, and characterized the extracellular domain (ECD) of mouse and human endoglin fused to an immunoglobulin Fc domain. We found that mouse and human endoglin ECD-Fc bound directly, specifically, and with high affinity to bone morphogenetic proteins 9 and 10 (BMP9 and BMP10) in surface plasmon resonance (Biacore) and cell-based assays. We performed a function mapping analysis of the different domains of endoglin by examining their contributions to the selectivity and biological activity of the protein. The BMP9/BMP10 binding site was localized to the orphan domain of human endoglin composed of the amino acid sequence 26-359. We established that endoglin and type II receptors bind to overlapping sites on BMP9. In the in vivo chick chorioallantoic membrane assay, the mouse and the truncated human endoglin ECD-Fc both significantly reduced VEGF-induced vessel formation. Finally, murine endoglin ECD-Fc acted as an anti-angiogenic factor that decreased blood vessel sprouting in VEGF/FGF-induced angiogenesis in in vivo angioreactors and reduced the tumor burden in the colon-26 mouse tumor model. Together our findings indicate an important role of soluble endoglin ECD in the regulation of angiogenesis and highlight efficacy of endoglin-Fc as a potential anti-angiogenesis therapeutic agent.

De novo helical peptides as target sequences for a specific, fluorogenic protein labelling strategy.

New methods are needed to selectively label proteins in a manner that minimally perturbs their structures and functions. We have developed a 'small molecule'-based labelling technique that relies on the use of dimaleimide fluorogens that react with a target peptide sequence that presents appropriately spaced, solvent-exposed Cys residues. The thiol addition reaction between target sequence and dimaleimide fluorogen restores the latent fluorescence of the latter and results in the covalent fluorescent labelling of the protein of interest (J. Guy, K. Caron, S. Dufresne, S. W. Michnick, W. G. Skene and J. W. Keillor, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2007, 129, 11969-11977). We demonstrated the proof-of-principle of this method previously, using a dicysteine mutant of the helical protein Fos (S. Girouard, M.-H. Houle, A. Grandbois, J. W. Keillor and S. W. Michnick, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2005, 127, 559-566). Herein, we present the design of a novel peptide sequence presenting two Cys residues separated by two turns of an alpha-helix. The secondary structure of this sequence was confirmed by CD spectroscopy, before and after the fluorescent labelling reaction. A new series of di(3-methylmaleimide) fluorogens was prepared and kinetically evaluated, tuning their reactivity toward the target sequence. Attempts were made to increase the reactivity of the parent target sequence by rational design; however, the introduction of basic His residues in the vicinity of one or more Cys residues did not have the desired effect. Finally, epidermal growth factor receptors bearing the de novo target sequence were specifically labelled with a di(3-methylmaleimide) fluorescein fluorogen, validating our method for specific cell-surface labelling of proteins. A wide variety of fluorogen and peptide designs can be envisioned with potential applications to multiplexed labelling for the study of temporal and spatial dynamics of protein expression.

Characterization of the ligand binding functionality of the extracellular domain of activin receptor type IIb.

The single transmembrane domain serine/threonine kinase activin receptor type IIB (ActRIIB) has been proposed to bind key regulators of skeletal muscle mass development, including the ligands GDF-8 (myostatin) and GDF-11 (BMP-11). Here we provide a detailed kinetic characterization of ActRIIB binding to several low and high affinity ligands using a soluble activin receptor type IIB-Fc chimera (ActRIIB.Fc). We show that both GDF-8 and GDF-11 bind the extracellular domain of ActRIIB with affinities comparable with those of activin A, a known high affinity ActRIIB ligand, whereas BMP-2 and BMP-7 affinities for ActRIIB are at least 100-fold lower. Using site-directed mutagenesis, we demonstrate that ActRIIB binds GDF-11 and activin A in different ways such as, for example, substitutions in ActRIIB Leu(79) effectively abolish ActRIIB binding to activin A yet not to GDF-11. Native ActRIIB has four isoforms that differ in the length of the C-terminal portion of their extracellular domains. We demonstrate that the C terminus of the ActRIIB extracellular domain is crucial for maintaining biological activity of the ActRIIB.Fc receptor chimera. In addition, we show that glycosylation of ActRIIB is not required for binding to activin A or GDF-11. Together, our findings reveal binding specificity and activity determinants of the ActRIIB receptor that combine to effect specificity in the activation of distinct signaling pathways.

ALK1-Fc inhibits multiple mediators of angiogenesis and suppresses tumor growth.

Activin receptor-like kinase-1 (ALK1) is a type I, endothelial cell-specific member of the transforming growth factor-beta superfamily of receptors known to play an essential role in modulating angiogenesis and vessel maintenance. In the present study, we sought to examine the angiogenic and tumorigenic effects mediated upon the inhibition of ALK1 signaling using a soluble chimeric protein (ALK1-Fc). Of 29 transforming growth factor-beta-related ligands screened by surface plasmon resonance, only bone morphogenetic protein (BMP9) and BMP10 displayed high-affinity binding to ALK1-Fc. In cell-based assays, ALK1-Fc inhibited BMP9-mediated Id-1 expression in human umbilical vein endothelial cells and inhibited cord formation by these cells on a Matrigel substrate. In a chick chorioallantoic membrane assay, ALK1-Fc reduced vascular endothelial growth factor-, fibroblast growth factor-, and BMP10-mediated vessel formation. The growth of B16 melanoma explants was also inhibited significantly by ALK1-Fc in this assay. Finally, ALK1-Fc treatment reduced tumor burden in mice receiving orthotopic grafts of MCF7 mammary adenocarcinoma cells. These data show the efficacy of chimeric ALK1-Fc proteins in mitigating vessel formation and support the view that ALK1-Fc is a powerful antiangiogenic agent capable of blocking vascularization.

Stereospecificity of ketoreductase domains 1 and 2 of the tylactone modular polyketide synthase.

Tylactone synthase (TYLS) is a modular polyketide synthase that catalyzes the formation of tylactone (1), the parent aglycone precursor of the macrolide antibiotic tylosin. TYLS modules 1 and 2 are responsible for the generation of antidiketide and triketide intermediates, respectively, each bound to an acyl carrier protein (ACP) domain. Each module harbors a ketoreductase (KR) domain. The stereospecificity of TYLS KR1 and TYLS KR2 has been determined by incubating each of the recombinant ketoreductase domains with reconstituted ketosynthase-acyltransferase [KS][AT] and ACP domains from the 6-deoxyerythronolide B synthase (DEBS) in the presence of the N-acetylcysteamine thioester of syn-(2S,3R)-2-methyl-3-hydroxypentanoate (6), methylmalonyl-CoA, and NADPH resulting in the exclusive formation of the ACP-bound (2R,3R,4S,5R)-2,4-methyl-3,5-dihydroxyhepanoyl triketide, as established by GC-MS analysis of the TMS ether of the derived triketide lactone 7. Both TYLS KR1 and KR2 therefore catalyze the stereospecific reduction of the 2-methyl-3-ketoacyl-ACP substrate from the re-face, with specificity for the reduction of the (2R)-methyl (D) diastereomer. The dehydration that is catalyzed by the dehydratase (DH) domains of TYLS module 2 to give the unsaturated (2E,4S,5R)-2,4-dimethyl-5-hydroxyhept-2-enoyl-ACP2 is therefore a syn elimination of water.

Kinetic characterization and identification of the acylation and glycosylation sites of recombinant human gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase.

Gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase (GGT) is a heterodimeric enzyme important for glutathione homeostasis control. It has also been implicated in many physiological disorders, including Parkinson's disease, apoptosis inhibition, and diabetes. In the first step of its ping-pong mechanism it binds glutathione, its in vivo substrate, and releases cysteinylglycine upon formation of an acyl-enzyme intermediate. This intermediate can then react with water to release glutamate as a hydrolysis product or with an amino acid or dipeptide to form a transpeptidation product. Further detailed study of the mechanism underlying these reactions is hindered at least for some GGTs by the low quantities of protein available after a multistep purification from tissue. In the present work the gene for human GGT was cloned into the pPICZalphaA vector and transformed into Pichia pastoris to express as a 68 kDa His-tagged protein. The optimized expression and secretion of this enzyme in 1 L of culture and subsequent purification by immobilized metal affinity chromatography yielded 1.6 mg of purified enzyme having a specific activity of 237 U/mg. Kinetic parameters for the transpeptidation reaction between glutathione and glycylglycine were determined by mass spectrometry, giving a kcat of 13.4 x 10(3) min-1 and apparent KM values of 1.11 mM for glutathione and 8.1 mM for glycylglycine. The GGT-mediated hydrolysis of glutathione was also studied, providing a kcat of 53 min-1 and a KM value of 7.3 microM for glutathione. Incubation of the enzyme with a mechanism-based inhibitor, enzymatic digest, and mass spectrometric analysis provided the first unambiguous identification of Thr381 as the active site nucleophile of human gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase, and confirmed four of the seven N-linked glycosylation sites. These structural and kinetic data are discussed with respect to a homology model generated to facilitate visualization.

Stereospecificity of ketoreductase domains of the 6-deoxyerythronolide B synthase.

6-Deoxyerythronolide B synthase (DEBS) is a modular polyketide synthase (PKS) responsible for the biosynthesis of 6-dEB (1), the parent aglycone of the broad spectrum macrolide antibiotic erythromycin. Individual DEBS modules, which contain the catalytic domains necessary for each step of polyketide chain elongation and chemical modification, can be deconstructed into constituent domains. To better understand the intrinsic stereospecificity of the ketoreductase (KR) domains, an in vitro reconstituted system has been developed involving combinations of ketosynthase (KS)-acyl transferase (AT) didomains with acyl-carrier protein (ACP) and KR domains from different DEBS modules. Incubations with (2S,3R)-2-methyl-3-hydroxypentanoic acid N-acetylcysteamine thioester (2) and methylmalonyl-CoA plus NADPH result in formation of a reduced, ACP-bound triketide that is converted to the corresponding triketide lactone 4 by either base- or enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis/cyclization. A sensitive and robust GC-MS technique has been developed to assign the stereochemistry of the resulting triketide lactones, on the basis of direct comparison with synthetic standards of each of the four possible diasteromers 4a-4d. Using the [KS][AT] didomains from either DEBS module 3 or module 6 in combination with KR domains from modules 2 or 6 gave in all cases exclusively (2R,3S,4R,5R)-3,5-dihydroxy-2,4-dimethyl-n-heptanoic acid-delta-lactone (4a). The same product was also generated by a chimeric module in which [KS3][AT3] was fused to [KR5][ACP5] and the DEBS thioesterase [TE] domain. Reductive quenching of the ACP-bound 2-methyl-3-ketoacyl triketide intermediate with sodium borohydride confirmed that in each case the triketide intermediate carried only an unepimerized d-2-methyl group. The results confirm the predicted stereospecificity of the individual KR domains, while revealing an unexpected configurational stability of the ACP-bound 2-methyl-3-ketoacyl thioester intermediate. The methodology should be applicable to the study of any combination of heterologous [KS][AT] and [KR] domains.

Gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase substrate specificity and catalytic mechanism.

The enzyme gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase (GGT) is critical to cellular detoxification and leukotriene biosynthesis processes, as well as amino acid transport in kidneys. GGT has also been implicated in many important physiological disorders, including Parkinson's disease and inhibition of apoptosis. It binds glutathione as donor substrate and initially forms a gamma-glutamyl enzyme that can then react with a water molecule or an acceptor substrate (usually an amino acid or a dipeptide) to form glutamate or a product containing a new gamma-glutamyl isopeptide bond, respectively, thus regenerating the free enzyme. Given the importance of GGT in human physiology, we have undertaken studies of its substrate specificity and catalytic mechanism. In the course of these studies, we have developed methods for the indirect evaluation of donor substrate affinity and stereospecificity and applied others for the measurement of steady state and pre-steady state kinetics and linear free-energy relationships. These methods and the pertinent results obtained with them are presented herein.

Kinetic studies of rat kidney gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase deacylation reveal a general base-catalyzed mechanism.

The enzyme gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase (GGT) is critical to cellular detoxification and leukotriene biosynthesis processes, as well as amino acid transport in kidneys. GGT has also been implicated in many important physiological disorders, including Parkinson's disease and inhibition of apoptosis. It binds glutathione as a donor substrate and initially forms a gamma-glutamyl-enzyme complex that can then react with a water molecule or an acceptor substrate (usually an amino acid or a dipeptide) to form glutamate or a product containing a new gamma-glutamyl-isopeptide bond, respectively, thus regenerating the free enzyme. Despite its important role in human physiology, the mechanisms of the reactions catalyzed by GGT are not well-known, particularly with respect to the deacylation step. We have synthesized a series of methionine amide derivatives whose alpha-ammonium groups have different pK(a) values. By using these compounds as acceptor substrates for GGT, we have constructed a Brønsted plot and obtained a good correlation for log(k(norm)(cat,b)/K(b)) versus pK(a)(NH+) with a slope beta(nuc) of 0.84, consistent with a rate-limiting nucleophilic attack of the substrate amine on the acyl-enzyme intermediate. Isotope effect studies have shown that there is a proton in flight at the transition state, consistent with concerted deprotonation of the nucleophilic amine effected by an unidentified general base. A bell-shaped pH-rate profile has also been obtained for the deacylation step, reflecting the pK(a) values of the acceptor substrate (and/or that of a general base residue) and of a putative general acid that may be necessary for reprotonation of the active site nucleophile upon regeneration of the free enzyme. These data allow us to propose for the first time a detailed mechanism for this important step of the GGT-mediated reaction and to speculate about the origin of its acceptor substrate specificity.

Synthesis of aza and oxaglutamyl-p-nitroanilide derivatives and their kinetic studies with gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase.

A new series of L-glutamic acid p-nitroanilide analogues has been synthesized and tested as substrates and inhibitors of rat kidney gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase (GGT). Kinetic parameters (K(m) and k(cat)) were determined for each analogue and provide insight into the scope and limits of GGT catalytic efficiency.

Expression, purification, crystallization and preliminary crystallographic analysis of Trypanosoma brucei phosphofructokinase.

Phosphofructokinase from Trypanosoma brucei (TbPFK) was purified from a recombinant expression system in Escherichia coli by metal-affinity chromatography via its N-terminal His tag. The yield was 15-20 mg of pure enzyme per litre of culture. M(r) was shown to be 55 585 by mass spectrometry. Crystals suitable for X-ray diffraction analysis were obtained by the hanging-drop method of vapour diffusion with sodium formate as the precipitating agent. Monoclinic crystals of the apoenzyme grew within one week, as did orthorhombic crystals of PFK in the presence of enzymic reaction products or an active-site inhibitor. Initial attempts to solve the structure by molecular replacement with bacterial PFK structures as search models proved unrewarding, but a multiple-copy search with a polyalanine model was successful. In addition, heavy-atom soaking with platinum and mercury has yielded derivatives suitable for X-ray diffraction. A combination of the phase information from the molecular-replacement solution and the heavy-atom derivatives should allow structure solution of TbPFK. The availability of this first eukaryotic PFK structure will be of particular significance for structure-based drug design and will also provide important additional structural evidence for the allosteric control of PFK activity.

Mapping of the active site of rat kidney gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase using activated esters and their amide derivatives.

The enzyme gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT), implicated in many physiological processes, catalyses the transfer of a gamma-glutamyl from a donor substrate to an acyl acceptor substrate, usually an amino acid or a peptide. In order to investigate which moieties of the donor substrate are necessary for recognition by GGT, the structure of the well-recognized substrate L-gamma-glutamyl-p-nitroanilide was modified. Several activated esters and their amide derivatives were synthesized and used as substrates. Kinetic (K(m) and V(max)) and inhibition constants (K(i)) were measured and reveal that almost the entire gamma-glutamyl moiety is necessary for recognition in the binding site of the donor substrate. The implied presence of certain complementary amino acids in this substrate binding site will allow the more rational design of various substrate analogues and inhibitors.