Physiological characterization of single-gene lysis proteins.

Single-strand RNA (ssRNA) and single-strand DNA phages elicit host lysis using a single gene, in each case designated as sgl. Of the 11 identified Sgls, three have been shown to be specific inhibitors of different steps in the pathway that supplies lipid II to the peptidoglycan (PG) biosynthesis machinery. These Sgls have been called "protein antibiotics" because the lytic event is a septal catastrophe indistinguishable from that caused by cell wall antibiotics. Here, we designate these as type I Sgls. In this formalism, the other eight Sgls are assigned to type II, the best-studied of which is protein L of the paradigm F-specific ssRNA phage MS2. Comparisons have suggested that type II Sgls have four sequence elements distinguished by hydrophobic and polar character. Environmental metatranscriptomics has revealed thousands of new ssRNA phage genomes, each of which presumably has an Sgl. Here, we describe methods to distinguish type I and type II Sgls. Using phase contrast microscopy, we show that both classes of Sgls cause the formation of blebs prior to lysis, but the location of the blebs differs significantly. In addition, we show that L and other type II Sgls do not inhibit the net synthesis of PG, as measured by radio-labeling of PG. Finally, we provide direct evidence that the Sgl from Pseudomonas phage PP7 is a type I Sgl, in support of a recent report based on a genetic selection. This shows that the putative four-element sequence structure suggested for L is not a reliable discriminator for the operational characterization of Sgls. IMPORTANCE: The ssRNA phage world has recently undergone a metagenomic expansion upward of a thousandfold. Each genome likely carries at least one single-gene lysis (sgl) cistron encoding a protein that single-handedly induces host autolysis. Here, we initiate an approach to segregate the Sgls into operational types based on physiological analysis, as a first step toward the alluring goal of finding many new ways to induce bacterial death and the attendant expectations for new antibiotic development.

Structural basis of Acinetobacter type IV pili targeting by an RNA virus.

Acinetobacters pose a significant threat to human health, especially those with weakened immune systems. Type IV pili of acinetobacters play crucial roles in virulence and antibiotic resistance. Single-stranded RNA bacteriophages target the bacterial retractile pili, including type IV. Our study delves into the interaction between Acinetobacter phage AP205 and type IV pili. Using cryo-electron microscopy, we solve structures of the AP205 virion with an asymmetric dimer of maturation proteins, the native Acinetobacter type IV pili bearing a distinct post-translational pilin cleavage, and the pili-bound AP205 showing its maturation proteins adapted to pilin modifications, allowing each phage to bind to one or two pili. Leveraging these results, we develop a 20-kilodalton AP205-derived protein scaffold targeting type IV pili in situ, with potential for research and diagnostics.

Physiological characterization of single gene lysis proteins.

Until recently only 11 distinct Sgls (single gene lysis proteins) have been experimentally identified. Of these, three have been shown to be specific inhibitors of different steps in the pathway that supplies Lipid II to the peptidoglycan (PG) biosynthesis machinery: Qß A2 inhibits MurA, ϕX174 E inhibits MraY, and Lys from coliphage M inhibits MurJ. These Sgls have been called "protein antibiotics" because the lytic event is a septal catastrophe indistinguishable from that caused by cell wall antibiotics. Here we propose to designate these as members of type I Sgls, to distinguish them from another Sgl, the L protein of the paradigm ssRNA phage MS2. Although none of the other distinct Sgls have significant sequence similarity to L, alignments suggested the presence of four domains distinguished by hydrophobic and polar character. The simplest notion is that these other Sgls have the same autolytic mechanism and, based on this, constitute type II. Although the number of experimentally confirmed Sgls has not changed, recent environmental metagenomes and metatranscriptomes have revealed thousands of new ssRNA phage genomes, each of which presumably has at least one Sgl gene. Here we report on methods to distinguish type I and type II Sgls. Using phase-contrast microscopy, we show that both classes of Sgls cause the formation of blebs prior to lysis, but the location of the blebs differs significantly. In addition, we show that L and other type II Sgls do not inhibit net synthesis of PG, as measured by incorporation of 3[H]-diaminopimelic acid. Finally, we provide support for the unexpected finding by Adler and colleagues that the Sgl from Pseudomonas phage PP7 is a type I Sgl, as determined by the two methods. This shows that the sharing the putative 4-domain structure suggested for L is not a reliable discriminator for operational characterization of Sgls. Overall, this study establishes new ways to rapidly classify novel Sgls and thus may facilitate the identification of new cell envelope targets that will help generate new antibiotics.

Multicopy suppressor screens reveal convergent evolution of single-gene lysis proteins.

Single-strand RNA (ssRNA) Fiersviridae phages cause host lysis with a product of single gene (sgl for single-gene lysis; product Sgl) that induces autolysis. Many different Sgls have been discovered, but the molecular targets of only a few have been identified. In this study, we used a high-throughput genetic screen to uncover genome-wide host suppressors of diverse Sgls. In addition to validating known molecular mechanisms, we discovered that the Sgl of PP7, an ssRNA phage of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, targets MurJ, the flippase responsible for lipid II export, previously shown to be the target of the Sgl of coliphage M. These two Sgls, which are unrelated and predicted to have opposite membrane topology, thus represent a case of convergent evolution. We extended the genetic screens to other uncharacterized Sgls and uncovered a common set of multicopy suppressors, suggesting that these Sgls act by the same or similar mechanism.

Rapid de novo evolution of lysis genes in single-stranded RNA phages.

Leviviruses are bacteriophages with small single-stranded RNA genomes consisting of 3-4 genes, one of which (sgl) encodes a protein that induces the host to undergo autolysis and liberate progeny virions. Recent meta-transcriptomic studies have uncovered thousands of leviviral genomes, but most of these lack an annotated sgl, mainly due to the small size, lack of sequence similarity, and embedded nature of these genes. Here, we identify sgl genes in 244 leviviral genomes and functionally characterize them in Escherichia coli. We show that leviviruses readily evolve sgl genes and sometimes have more than one per genome. Moreover, these genes share little to no similarity with each other or to previously known sgl genes, thus representing a rich source for potential protein antibiotics.

Single-gene lysis in the metagenomic era.

The small lytic phages (Microviridae and Leviviridae), effect bacterial lysis with the product of a single gene. The three well-studied single-gene lysis (Sgl) proteins (E of φX174, A2 of Qß, and LysM of phage M) lack direct muralytic activity, and have been shown to function as 'protein antibiotics' by acting as noncompetitive inhibitors of conserved peptidoglycan (PG) biosynthesis enzymes, MurA, MraY, and MurJ respectively. The fourth, protein L of MS2, does not inhibit PG biosynthesis but instead is hypothesized to trigger host autolytic response through an unknown mechanism. Recent advances in meta-omics approaches have led to an explosion in the available genomes of small lytic phages. Of the thousands of new genomes, only one annotated Sgl shared some sequence similarity with a known Sgl (L of MS2), highlighting the diversity in Sgls. The newly available genomic space serves as an untapped resource for discovering novel Sgls.

ssRNA phage penetration triggers detachment of the F-pilus.

Although the F-specific ssRNA phage MS2 has long had paradigm status, little is known about penetration of the genomic RNA (gRNA) into the cell. The phage initially binds to the F-pilus using its maturation protein (Mat), and then the Mat-bound gRNA is released from the viral capsid and somehow crosses the bacterial envelope into the cytoplasm. To address the mechanics of this process, we fluorescently labeled the ssRNA phage MS2 to track F-pilus dynamics during infection. We discovered that ssRNA phage infection triggers the release of F-pili from host cells, and that higher multiplicity of infection (MOI) correlates with detachment of longer F-pili. We also report that entry of gRNA into the host cytoplasm requires the F-plasmid-encoded coupling protein, TraD, which is located at the cytoplasmic entrance of the F-encoded type IV secretion system (T4SS). However, TraD is not essential for pilus detachment, indicating that detachment is triggered by an early step of MS2 engagement with the F-pilus or T4SS. We propose a multistep model in which the ssRNA phage binds to the F-pilus and through pilus retraction engages with the distal end of the T4SS channel at the cell surface. Continued pilus retraction pulls the Mat-gRNA complex out of the virion into the T4SS channel, causing a torsional stress that breaks the mature F-pilus at the cell surface. We propose that phage-induced disruptions of F-pilus dynamics provides a selective advantage for infecting phages and thus may be prevalent among the phages specific for retractile pili.

Phage single-gene lysis: Finding the weak spot in the bacterial cell wall.

In general, the last step in the vegetative cycle of bacterial viruses, or bacteriophages, is lysis of the host. dsDNA phages require multiple lysis proteins, including at least one enzyme that degrades the cell wall (peptidoglycan (PG)). In contrast, the lytic ssDNA and ssRNA phages have a single lysis protein that achieves cell lysis without enzymatically degrading the PG. Here, we review four "single-gene lysis" or Sgl proteins. Three of the Sgls block bacterial cell wall synthesis by binding to and inhibiting several enzymes in the PG precursor pathway. The target of the fourth Sgl, L from bacteriophage MS2, is still unknown, but we review evidence indicating that it is likely a protein involved in maintaining cell wall integrity. Although only a few phage genomes are available to date, the ssRNA Leviviridae are a rich source of novel Sgls, which may facilitate further unraveling of bacterial cell wall biosynthesis and discovery of new antibacterial agents.

A viral protein antibiotic inhibits lipid II flippase activity.

For bacteriophage infections, the cell walls of bacteria, consisting of a single highly polymeric molecule of peptidoglycan (PG), pose a major problem for the release of progeny virions. Phage lysis proteins that overcome this barrier can point the way to new antibacterial strategies 1 , especially small lytic single-stranded DNA (the microviruses) and RNA phages (the leviviruses) that effect host lysis using a single non-enzymatic protein 2 . Previously, the A2 protein of levivirus Qß and the E protein of the microvirus ϕX174 were shown to be 'protein antibiotics' that inhibit the MurA and MraY steps of the PG synthesis pathway 2-4 . Here, we investigated the mechanism of action of an unrelated lysis protein, LysM, of the Escherichia coli levivirus M 5 . We show that LysM inhibits the translocation of the final lipid-linked PG precursor called lipid II across the cytoplasmic membrane by interfering with the activity of MurJ. The finding that LysM inhibits a distinct step in the PG synthesis pathway from the A2 and E proteins indicates that small phages, particularly the single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) leviviruses, have a previously unappreciated capacity for evolving novel inhibitors of PG biogenesis despite their limited coding potential.

Mutational analysis of the MS2 lysis protein L.

Small single-stranded nucleic acid phages effect lysis by expressing a single protein, the amurin, lacking muralytic enzymatic activity. Three amurins have been shown to act like 'protein antibiotics' by inhibiting cell-wall biosynthesis. However, the L lysis protein of the canonical ssRNA phage MS2, a 75 aa polypeptide, causes lysis by an unknown mechanism without affecting net peptidoglycan synthesis. To identify residues important for lytic function, randomly mutagenized alleles of L were generated, cloned into an inducible plasmid and the transformants were selected on agar containing the inducer. From a total of 396 clones, 67 were unique single base-pair changes that rendered L non-functional, of which 44 were missense mutants and 23 were nonsense mutants. Most of the non-functional missense alleles that accumulated in levels comparable to the wild-type allele are localized in the C-terminal half of L, clustered in and around an LS dipeptide sequence. The LS motif was used to align L genes from ssRNA phages lacking any sequence similarity to MS2 or to each other. This alignment revealed a conserved domain structure, in terms of charge, hydrophobic character and predicted helical content. None of the missense mutants affected membrane-association of L. Several of the L mutations in the central domains were highly conservative and recessive, suggesting a defect in a heterotypic protein-protein interaction, rather than in direct disruption of the bilayer structure, as had been previously proposed for L.

MS2 Lysis of Escherichia coli Depends on Host Chaperone DnaJ.

The L protein of the single-stranded RNA phage MS2 causes lysis of Escherichia coli without inducing bacteriolytic activity or inhibiting net peptidoglycan (PG) synthesis. To find host genes required for L-mediated lysis, spontaneous Ill (insensitivity to Llysis) mutants were selected as survivors of L expression and shown to have a missense change of the highly conserved proline (P330Q) in the C-terminal domain of DnaJ. In the dnaJP330Q mutant host, L-mediated lysis is completely blocked at 30°C without affecting the intracellular levels of L. At higher temperatures (37°C and 42°C), both lysis and L accumulation are delayed. The lysis block at 30°C in the dnaJP330Q mutant was recessive and could be suppressed by Lovercomes dnaJ (Lodj ) alleles selected for restoration of lysis. All three Lodj alleles lack the highly basic N-terminal half of the lysis protein and cause lysis ∼20 min earlier than full-length L. DnaJ was found to form a complex with full-length L. This complex was abrogated by the P330Q mutation and was absent with the Lodj truncations. These results suggest that, in the absence of interaction with DnaJ, the N-terminal domain of L interferes with its ability to bind to its unknown target. The lysis retardation and DnaJ chaperone dependency conferred by the nonessential, highly basic N-terminal domain of L resembles the SlyD chaperone dependency conferred by the highly basic C-terminal domain of the E lysis protein of ϕX174, suggesting a common theme where single-gene lysis can be modulated by host factors influenced by physiological conditions.IMPORTANCE Small single-stranded nucleic acid lytic phages (Microviridae and Leviviridae) lyse their host by expressing a single "protein antibiotic." The protein antibiotics from two out of three prototypic small lytic viruses have been shown to inhibit two different steps in the conserved PG biosynthesis pathway. However, the molecular basis of lysis caused by L, the lysis protein of the third prototypic virus, MS2, is unknown. The significance of our research lies in the identification of DnaJ as a chaperone in the MS2 L lysis pathway and the identification of the minimal lytic domain of MS2 L. Additionally, our research highlights the importance of the highly conserved P330 residue in the C-terminal domain of DnaJ for specific protein interactions.

Complete Genome of Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium T5-Like Siphophage Stitch.

Salmonellosis, caused by Salmonella, is a leading cause of food poisoning worldwide. With the continuing rise of bacterial antibiotic resistance, efforts are focused on seeking new approaches for treatment of bacterial infections, namely, bacteriophage therapy. Here, we report the complete genome of S. Typhimurium siphophage Stitch.

Complete Genome of Bacillus megaterium Podophage Page.

Bacillus megaterium is a Gram-positive, spore-forming saprophytic inhabitant of diverse environments. It is a reservoir for industrial chemical production and is emerging as a model organism for studying sporulation and protein localization. Here, we introduce the complete genome of Page, a novel podophage infecting B. megaterium.

Complete Genome of Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium Myophage Maynard.

Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium is a pathogenic bacterium that has been a major concern for food and public safety. Phages infecting S. Typhimurium may prove to be useful therapeutics against this harmful bacterium. Here, we announce the complete genome of S. Typhimurium T4-like myophage Maynard and describe its features.

Complete Genome of Bacillus subtilis Myophage CampHawk.

The study of bacteriophages infecting the model organism Bacillus subtilis has provided an abundance of general knowledge and a platform for advances in biotechnology. Here, we announce the annotated genome of CampHawk, a B. subtilis phage. CampHawk was found to be an SPO1-like phage with similar gene content and arrangement.

Complete Genome of Acinetobacter baumannii Podophage Petty.

Acinetobacter baumannii is an emerging pathogen that was isolated from wounded soldiers in military treatment facilities in Iraq but has since become a problem in civilian hospitals. Here, we announce and describe the complete genome of the KMV-like A. baumannii podophage Petty.

Complete Genome of Acinetobacter baumannii N4-Like Podophage Presley.

Acinetobacter baumannii is an emerging multidrug-resistant nosocomial pathogen. Bacteriophages may be useful as an alternative method of treatment against this and other multidrug-resistant bacteria. Here, we present the complete genome sequence of A. baumannii phage Presley, an N4-like podophage.

Complete Genome of Bacillus thuringiensis Myophage BigBertha.

BigBertha is a myophage of Bacillus thuringiensis, a widely used biocontrol agent that is active against many insect pests of plants. Here, we present the complete annotated genome of BigBertha. The genome shares 85.9% sequence identity with Bacillus cereus phage B4.

Complete Genome of Bacillus pumilus Siphophage Blastoid.

Phage Blastoid is a siphophage that infects Bacillus pumilus. B. pumilus is widely used in agriculture but has recently been linked to cases of food poisoning. Here, we report the complete genome of Blastoid and discuss unique genomic characteristics.

Complete Genome of Bacillus pumilus Siphophage Glittering.

Bacillus pumilus is a Gram-positive bacterium widely used in agriculture both as an antifungal and as a growth-promoting symbiont. B. pumilus is rarely infectious but has recently been shown to infect humans. Here, we present the complete genome of B. pumilus phage Glittering, a potential biocontrol agent for B. pumilus.