Are autistic traits associated with a social-emotional memory bias?

Autistic traits are associated with differential processing of emotional and social cues. By contrast little is known about the relationship of autistic traits to socio-emotional memory, though research suggests an integral relationship between episodic memory processes and psychosocial well-being. Using an experimental paradigm, we tested if autistic traits moderate the effects of negative emotion and social cues on episodic memory (i.e. memory for past events). Young adults (N = 706) with varied levels of self-reported autistic traits (24% in clinical range) encoded images stratified by emotion (negative, neutral) and social cues (social, non-social) alongside a neutral object. After 24 h, item memory for images and associative memory for objects was tested. For item memory, after controlling for anxiety, a small effect emerged whereby a memory-enhancing effect of social cues was reduced as autistic traits increased. For associative memory, memory for pairings between neutral, but not negative, images reduced as autistic traits increased. Results suggest autistic traits are associated with reduced ability to bind neutral items together in memory, potentially impeding nuanced appraisals of past experience. This bias toward more negative, less nuanced memories of past experience may represent a cognitive vulnerability to social and mental health challenges commonly associated with autistic traits and a potential intervention target.

i-Frame interventions enhance s-frame interventions.

We argue that i-frame interventions can and do increase support for systemic reforms, and s-frame interventions should be pursued in parallel to address key societal issues. Without accompanying i-frame interventions, s-frame interventions can fail. We offer an operant conditioning framework to generate positive spillover effects. Behavioral scientists should develop i-frame interventions that enhance, rather than compete with, s-frame interventions.

Are loneliness and social isolation equal threats to health and well-being? An outcome-wide longitudinal approach.

The detrimental effects of loneliness and social isolation on health and well-being outcomes are well documented. In response, governments, corporations, and community-based organizations have begun leveraging tools to create interventions and policies aimed at reducing loneliness and social isolation at scale. However, these efforts are frequently hampered by a key knowledge gap: when attempting to improve specific health and well-being outcomes, decision-makers are often unsure whether to target loneliness, social isolation, or both. Filling this knowledge gap will inform the development and refinement of effective interventions. Using data from the Health and Retirement Study (13,752 participants (59% women and 41% men, mean [SD] age = 67 [10] years)), we examined how changes in loneliness and social isolation over a 4-year follow-up period (from t0:2008/2010 to t1:2012/2014) were associated with 32 indicators of physical-, behavioral-, and psychosocial-health outcomes 4-years later (t2:2016/2018). We used multiple logistic-, linear-, and generalized-linear regression models, and adjusted for sociodemographic, personality traits, pre-baseline levels of both exposures (loneliness and social isolation), and all outcomes (t0:2008/2010). We incorporated data from all participants into the overall estimate, regardless of whether their levels of loneliness and social isolation changed from the pre-baseline to baseline waves. After adjusting for a wide range of covariates, we observed that both loneliness and social isolation were associated with several physical health outcomes and health behaviors. However, social isolation was more predictive of mortality risk and loneliness was a stronger predictor of psychological outcomes. Loneliness and social isolation have independent effects on various health and well-being outcomes and thus constitute distinct targets for interventions aimed at improving population health and well-being.

Computer passwords as a timely booster for writing-based psychological interventions.

Writing-based psychological interventions have been widely implemented to produce adaptive change, e.g., through self-affirmation (reminding people of their most important values). To maintain the long-term effects of these interventions, we developed a form of intervention boosters-using user-customized computer passwords to convey the therapeutic messages. We examined whether computer passwords could enhance the effect of a self-affirmation intervention on the psychological well-being of sexual minority undergraduate students as they begin university. Participants were randomly assigned to either complete a self-affirmation writing exercise and create a self-affirming computer password to use for 6 weeks or complete a control writing exercise and create a control computer password. We found that frequency of password usage moderated the intervention effect, such that frequent use of self-affirming passwords buffered decreases in psychological well-being over the study period. These findings suggest that passwords can serve as a low-cost, low-burden, and timely booster for writing-based psychological interventions.

Identifying pathways to increased volunteering in older US adults.

While growing evidence documents strong associations between volunteering and improved health and well-being outcomes, less is known about the health and well-being factors that lead to increased volunteering. Using data from 13,771 participants in the Health and Retirement Study (HRS)-a diverse, longitudinal, and national sample of older adults in the United States-we evaluated a large range of candidate predictors of volunteering. Specifically, using generalized linear regression models with a lagged exposure-wide approach, we evaluated if changes in 61 predictors spanning physical health, health behaviors, and psychosocial well-being (over a 4-year follow-up between t0; 2006/2008 and t1; 2010/2012) were associated with volunteer activity four years later (t2; 2014/2016). After adjusting for a rich set of covariates, certain changes in some health behaviors (e.g., physical activity ≥ 1x/week), physical health conditions (e.g., physical functioning limitations, cognitive impairment), and psychosocial factors (e.g., purpose in life, constraints, contact with friends, etc.) were associated with increased volunteering four years later. However, there was little evidence that other factors were associated with subsequent volunteering. Changes in several indicators of physical health, health behaviors, and psychosocial well-being may predict increased volunteering, and these factors may be novel targets for interventions and policies aiming to increase volunteering in older adults.

Assessing the role of adolescent hormonal contraceptive use on risk for depression: a 3-year longitudinal study protocol.

BACKGROUND: The incidence of depression in human females rises steadily throughout adolescence, a critical period of pubertal maturation marked by increasing levels of gonadal hormones including estrogens and progesterone. These gonadal hormones play a central role in social and emotional development and may also contribute to the increased occurrence of depression in females that begins in early adolescence. In this study, we examine whether and how introducing synthetic estrogen and progestin derivatives through the use of combined hormonal contraceptives (CHC), affects adolescent females' risk for developing depression. We further assess potential links between CHC use and alterations in stress responses and social-emotional functioning. METHODS: Using a longitudinal cohort design, we will follow a sample of adolescent females over the span of three years. Participants will be assessed at three time points: once when they are between 13 and 15 years of age, and at approximately 18 and 36 months after their initial assessment. Each time point will consist of two online sessions during which participants will complete a clinical interview that screens for key symptoms of mental health disorders, along with a series of questionnaires assessing their level of depressive symptoms and history of contraceptive use. They will also complete a standardized social-evaluative stress test and an emotion recognition task, as well as provide saliva samples to allow for assessment of their circulating free cortisol levels. DISCUSSION: In this study we will assess the effect of CHC use during adolescence on development of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). We will control for variables previously found to or proposed to partially account for the observed relationship between CHC use and MDD, including socioeconomic status, age of sexual debut, and CHC-related variables including age of first use, reasons for use, and its duration. In particular, we will discover whether CHC use increases depressive symptoms and/or MDD, whether elevated depressive symptoms and/or MDD predict a higher likelihood of starting CHC, or both. Furthermore, this study will allow us to clarify whether alterations in stress reactivity and social-emotional functioning serve as pathways through which CHC use may result in increased risk of depressive symptoms and/or MDD.

Association between adolescent oral contraceptive use and future major depressive disorder: a prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Because of the widespread use of oral contraceptives (OCs) and the devastating effects of depression both on an individual and a societal level, it is crucial to understand the nature of the previously reported relationship between OC use and depression risk. Insight into the impact of analytical choices on the association is important when interpreting available evidence. Hence, we examined the association between adolescent OC use and subsequent depression risk in early adulthood analyzing all theoretically justifiable models. METHODS: Data from the prospective cohort study TRacking Adolescents' Individual Lives Survey, among women aged 13-25 years were used. Adolescent OC use (ages 16-19 years) was used as a predictor and major depressive disorder (MDD) in early adulthood (ages 20-25 years), as assessed by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV oriented Lifetime Depression Assessment Self-Report and the Composite International Diagnostic Interview, was used as an outcome. A total of 818 analytical models were analyzed using Specification Curve Analysis in 534 adolescent OC users and 191 nonusers. RESULTS: Overall, there was an association of adolescent OC use and an episode of MDD in early adulthood [median odds ratio (OR)median = 1.41; ORmin = 1.08; ORmax = 2.18, p < .001], which was driven by the group of young women with no history of MDD (ORmedian = 1.72; ORmin = 1.21; ORmax = 2.18, p < .001). CONCLUSIONS: In summary, adolescent OC use was associated with a small but robust increased risk for experiencing an episode of MDD, especially among women with no history of MDD in adolescence. Understanding the potential side effects of OCs will help women and their doctors to make informed choices when deciding among possible methods of birth control.

Receptiveness to Opposing Views: Conceptualization and Integrative Review.

The present article reviews a growing body of research on receptiveness to opposing views-the willingness to access, consider, and evaluate contradictory opinions in a relatively impartial manner. First, we describe the construct of receptiveness and consider how it can be measured and studied at the individual level. Next, we extend our theorizing to the interpersonal level, arguing that receptiveness in the course of any given interaction is mutually constituted by the dispositional tendencies and observable behaviors of the parties involved. We advance the argument that receptiveness should be conceptualized and studied as an interpersonal construct that emerges dynamically over the course of an interaction and is powerfully influenced by counterpart behavior. This interpersonal conceptualization of receptiveness has important implications for intervention design and raises a suite of novel research questions.

Social integration after moving to a new city predicts lower systolic blood pressure.

Residential mobility is linked to higher incidence of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and mortality. A mechanism by which residential relocation may impact health is through the disruption of social networks. To examine whether moving to a new city is associated with increased CVD risk and whether the extent to which movers rebuild their social network after relocating predicts improved CVD risk and psychosocial well-being, recent movers (n = 26), and age- and sex-matched nonmovers (n = 20) were followed over 3 months. Blood pressure, C-reactive protein/albumin ratio (CRP/ALB), social network size, and psychosocial well-being were measured at intake (within 6 weeks of residential relocation for movers) and 3 months later. Multiple regression indicated higher systolic blood pressure (SBP) for movers (M = 107.42, SD = 11.39), compared with nonmovers (M = 102.37, SD = 10.03) at intake, though this trend was not statistically significant. As predicted, increases in movers' social network size over 3 months predicted decreases in SBP, even after controlling for age, sex, and waist-to-hip ratio, b = -2.04 mmHg, 95% CI [-3.35, -.73]. Associations between increases in movers' social ties and decreases in depressive symptoms and stress were in the predicted direction but did not meet the traditional cutoff for statistical significance. Residential relocation and movers' social network size were not associated with CRP/ALB in this healthy sample. This study provides preliminary evidence for increased SBP among recent movers; furthermore, it suggests that this elevation in CVD risk may decrease as individuals successfully rebuild their social network.

Effects of Chronic and State Loneliness on Heart Rate Variability in Women.

BACKGROUND: Loneliness, the subjective experience of social isolation, represents one of the largest risk factors for physical illness and early death in humans. However, the mechanisms by which loneliness leads to adverse health outcomes are not well understood. PURPOSE: In this study, we examined altered parasympathetic nervous system function as a potential pathway by which chronic loneliness and state loneliness may "get under the skin" to impact cardiovascular physiology. METHODS: In a controlled laboratory setting, vagally mediated resting heart rate variability (HRV), HRV reactivity to an induction of state loneliness, and HRV reactivity to a cognitive challenge task were assessed in a sample of 316 healthy women (18-28 years). RESULTS: Greater chronic loneliness in women predicted lower resting HRV, an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality, after controlling for demographic, psychosocial, and health behavior covariates. Furthermore, women higher in chronic loneliness experienced significantly larger increases in HRV to state loneliness and reported significantly higher levels of negative affect immediately following state loneliness, compared with their less chronically lonely counterparts. Chronic loneliness also predicted blunted HRV reactivity-a maladaptive physiological response-to cognitive challenge. CONCLUSIONS: The current findings provide evidence that chronic loneliness is associated with altered parasympathetic function (both resting HRV and HRV reactivity) in women, and that the immediate experience of state loneliness is linked to a proximate increase in HRV among chronically lonely women. Results are discussed in terms of implications for cardiovascular health and the evolutionary functions of loneliness.

The Upside to Feeling Worse Than Average (WTA): A Conceptual Framework to Understand When, How, and for Whom WTA Beliefs Have Long-Term Benefits.

Our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are shaped in critical ways by our beliefs about how we compare to other people. Prior research has predominately focused on the consequences of believing oneself to be better than average (BTA). Research on the consequences of worse-than-average (WTA) beliefs has been far more limited, focusing mostly on the downsides of WTA beliefs. In this paper, we argue for the systematic investigation of the possible long-term benefits of WTA beliefs in domains including motivation, task performance, and subjective well-being. We develop a conceptual framework for examining these possible benefits, we explore the usefulness of this framework to generate novel insights in an important psychological domain (skill learning), and we conclude with broader recommendations for research in other domains such as friendship formation, moral, and political decision making.

The Scent of a Good Night's Sleep: Olfactory Cues of a Romantic Partner Improve Sleep Efficiency.

Almost nothing is known about whether exposure to the scent of loved ones influences sleep. In the current study, 155 participants spent 2 nights with their partner's scent and 2 nights with a control scent (in random order). Sleep was measured in two ways: sleep efficiency (via actigraphy) and perceived sleep quality (via self-report). Sleep efficiency was higher when participants were exposed to their partner's scent. This increase occurred regardless of participants' beliefs about the origin of the scent. Perceived sleep quality was higher when participants believed that they were smelling their partner's scent. Exposure to a partner's scent led sleep efficiency to increase by more than 2% on average, an improvement similar in magnitude to the effect of melatonin on sleep. The current work speaks to the critical role of olfaction in communication and reveals that social scents can impact sleep.

Common variants of the oxytocin receptor gene do not predict the positive mood benefits of prosocial spending.

Who benefits most from helping others? Previous research suggests that common polymorphisms of the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) predict whether people behave generously and experience increases in positive mood in response to socially focused experiences in daily life. Building on these findings, we conducted an experiment with a large, ethnically homogenous sample (N = 437) to examine whether individual differences in three frequently studied single nucleotide polymorphisms of OXTR (rs53576, rs2268498, rs2254298) also predict differences in the positive mood benefits of financial generosity. Consistent with past research, participants who were randomly assigned to purchase items for others (vs. themselves) reported greater positive affect. Contrary to predictions, using Bayesian statistics, we found conclusive evidence that the benefits of generosity were not moderated by individual differences in OXTR single nucleotide polymorphisms. The current work highlights the importance of publishing null results to build cumulative knowledge linking neurobiological factors to positive emotional experiences. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Oral contraceptive use in adolescence predicts lasting vulnerability to depression in adulthood.

BACKGROUND: Previous evidence suggests that use of oral contraceptives (OCs), especially during adolescence, may increase women's vulnerability to depression in the short term. Here, we investigate whether women who had first used OC in adolescence show an increased prevalence of depression in the long term. METHODS: We examined 1,236 women in the United States National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey for whom information on depression and age at first OC use was publicly available. We compared women who reported first use of OCs in adolescence to women who had never used OCs and women who had first used OCs in adulthood on 1-year prevalence of major depressive disorder (MDD) assessed by trained interviewers. RESULTS: Compared with women who had used OCs during adolescence, women who had never used OCs were less likely to meet the criteria for MDD within the past year in adulthood [odds ratio (OR) = 0.31, 95% CI = 0.16-0.60], and so were women who only started using OCs in adulthood (OR = 0.54, 95% CI = 0.30-0.95). Third factors that have previously been proposed to explain the relationship between OC use and depression risk such as age at sexual debut, and, importantly, current OC use, did not account for the results in propensity score analyses. CONCLUSIONS: We show a long-term association between adolescent OC use and depression risk in adulthood regardless of current OC use. Our findings suggest that adolescence may be a sensitive period during which OC use could increase women's risk for depression, years after first exposure.

Evaluating a Web-Based Social Anxiety Intervention Among Community Users: Analysis of Real-World Data.

BACKGROUND: Social anxiety is both harmful and prevalent. It also currently remains among the most undertreated major mental disorders, due, in part, to socially anxious individuals' concerns about the stigma and expense of seeking help. The privacy and affordability of computer-aided psychotherapy interventions may render them particularly helpful in addressing these concerns, and they are also highly scalable, but most tend to be only somewhat effective without therapist support. However, a recent evaluation of a new self-guided, 7-module internet-delivered cognitive behavioral therapy intervention called Overcome Social Anxiety found that it was highly effective. OBJECTIVE: The initial evaluation of Overcome Social Anxiety revealed that it led to significant reductions in symptom severity among university undergraduates. The aim of this study was to extend the results of the initial study and investigate their generalizability by directly evaluating the intervention's effectiveness among a general community sample. METHODS: While signing up for Overcome Social Anxiety, users consented to the usage of their anonymized outcome data for research purposes. Before and after completing the intervention, users completed the Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale (FNE), which we employed as the primary outcome measure. Secondary outcome measures included the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) and 2 bespoke questionnaires measuring socially anxious thoughts (Thoughts Questionnaire) and avoidance behaviors (Avoidance Questionnaire). RESULTS: Participants who completed the intervention (102/369, 27.7%) experienced significant reductions in the severity of their symptoms on all measures employed, including FNE (P<.001; Cohen d=1.76), the depression subscale of DASS (P<.001; Cohen d=0.70), the anxiety subscale of DASS (P<.001; Cohen d=0.74), the stress subscale of DASS (P<.001; Cohen d=0.80), the Thoughts Questionnaire (P<.001; Cohen d=1.46), and the Avoidance Questionnaire (P<.001; Cohen d=1.42). CONCLUSIONS: Our results provide further evidence that Overcome Social Anxiety reduces the severity of social anxiety symptoms among those who complete it and suggest that its effectiveness extends to the general community. The completion rate is the highest documented for a fully automated intervention for anxiety, depression, or low mood in a real community sample. In addition, our results indicate that Overcome Social Anxiety reduces the severity of symptoms of depression, physiological symptoms of anxiety, and stress in addition to symptoms of social anxiety.

Long-Term Health Implications of Students' Friendship Formation during the Transition to University.

BACKGROUND: The transition to university is a major life change wherein young adults' primary support system shifts from the family to peers. Can change in social integration (operationalised as number of friends) during the first term at university contribute to students' health years later, and if so, how? METHODS: The friendship formation of 67 students at a large Canadian university was assessed during their first term. These data were used to predict self-reported health and health behaviors (physical exercise, diet, tobacco, alcohol and marijuana consumption) at a follow-up assessment that occurred near the end of their time at university (2 or 3 years later). RESULTS: Linear regression models showed that students who made more friends in their first term reported better health and a healthier diet at the follow-up (2 or 3 years later). Perceived social support at the follow-up mediated the relationship between friendship formation and self-reported health but not diet. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides evidence for both (1) an indirect effect of friendship formation on self-reported health via perceived social support, and (2) a direct effect of friendship formation on a healthy diet. Broadly, these results highlight the importance of friendship formation and social integration for the long-term well-being of university students.

Evaluating a Web-Based Social Anxiety Intervention Among University Students: Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Treatment rates for social anxiety, a prevalent and potentially debilitating condition, remain among the lowest of all major mental disorders today. Although computer-delivered interventions are well poised to surmount key barriers to the treatment of social anxiety, most are only marginally effective when delivered as stand-alone treatments. A new, Web-based cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) intervention called Overcome Social Anxiety was recently created to address the limitations of prior computer-delivered interventions. Users of Overcome Social Anxiety are self-directed through various CBT modules incorporating cognitive restructuring and behavioral experiments. The intervention is personalized to each user's symptoms, and automatic email reminders and time limits are used to encourage adherence. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to conduct a randomized controlled trial to investigate the effectiveness of Overcome Social Anxiety in reducing social anxiety symptoms in a nonclinical sample of university students. As a secondary aim, we also investigated whether Overcome Social Anxiety would increase life satisfaction in this sample. METHODS: Following eligibility screening, participants were randomly assigned to a treatment condition or a wait-list control condition. Only those assigned to the treatment condition were given access to Overcome Social Anxiety; they were asked to complete the program within 4 months. The social interaction anxiety scale (SIAS), the fear of negative evaluation scale (FNE), and the quality of life enjoyment and satisfaction questionnaire-short form (Q-LES-Q-SF) were administered to participants from both conditions during baseline and 4-month follow-up lab visits. RESULTS: Over the course of the study, participants assigned to the treatment condition experienced a significant reduction in social anxiety (SIAS: P<.001, Cohen d=0.72; FNE: P<.001, Cohen d=0.82), whereas those assigned to the control condition did not (SIAS: P=.13, Cohen d=0.26; FNE: P=.40, Cohen d=0.14). Additionally, a direct comparison of the average change in social anxiety in the 2 conditions over the course of the study showed that those assigned to the treatment condition experienced significantly more improvement than those assigned to the control condition (SIAS: P=.03, Cohen d=0.56; FNE: P=.001, Cohen d=0.97). Although participants assigned to the treatment condition experienced a slight increase in life satisfaction, as measured by Q-LES-Q-SF scores, and those assigned to the control condition experienced a slight decrease, these changes were not statistically significant (treatment: P=.35, Cohen d=-0.18; control: P=.30, Cohen d=0.18). CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that Overcome Social Anxiety is an effective intervention for treating symptoms of social anxiety and that it may have further utility in serving as a model for the development of new interventions. Additionally, our findings provide evidence that contemporary Web-based interventions can be sophisticated enough to benefit users even when delivered as stand-alone treatments, suggesting that further opportunities likely exist for the development of other Web-based mental health interventions. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02792127; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/record/NCT02792127 (Archived by WebCite at http://www.webcitation.org/6xGSRh7MG).

Petting away pre-exam stress: The effect of therapy dog sessions on student well-being.

Recently, many universities have implemented programmes in which therapy dogs and their handlers visit college campuses. Despite the immense popularity of therapy dog sessions, few randomized studies have empirically tested the efficacy of such programmes. The present study evaluates the efficacy of such a therapy dog programme in improving the well-being of university students. This research incorporates two components: (a) a pre/post within-subjects design, in which 246 participants completed a brief questionnaire immediately before and after a therapy dog session and (b) an experimental design with a delayed-treatment control group, in which all participants completed baseline measures and follow-up measures approximately 10 hr later. Only participants in the experimental condition experienced the therapy dog session in between the baseline and follow-up measures. Analyses of pre/post data revealed that the therapy dog sessions had strong immediate benefits, significantly reducing stress and increasing happiness and energy levels. In addition, participants in the experimental group reported a greater improvement in negative affect, perceived social support, and perceived stress compared with those in the delayed-treatment control group. Our results suggest that single, drop-in, therapy dog sessions have large and immediate effects on students' well-being, but also that the effects after several hours are small.

Olfactory cues from romantic partners and strangers influence women's responses to stress.

The scent of another person can activate memories, trigger emotions, and spark romantic attraction; however, almost nothing is known about whether and how human scents influence responses to stress. In the current study, 96 women were randomly assigned to smell one of three scents (their romantic partner's, a stranger's, or a neutral scent) and exposed to an acute stressor (Trier Social Stress Test). Perceived stress and cortisol were measured continuously throughout the study (5 and 7 times, respectively). Perceived stress was reduced in women who were exposed to their partner's scent. This reduction was observed during stress anticipation and stress recovery. Cortisol levels were elevated in women who were exposed to a stranger's scent. This elevation was observed throughout stress anticipation, peak stress, and stress recovery. The current work speaks to the critical role of human olfactory cues in social communication and reveals that social scents can impact both psychological and physiological reactions to stress. (PsycINFO Database Record

Vegetarian or meat? Food choice modeling of main dishes occurs outside of awareness.

It is well established that the amount eaten by other people affects how much we eat, but unanswered questions exist regarding how much the food choices of other people affect the types of food that we choose. Past research on food choice modeling has primarily been conducted in controlled laboratory situations and has focused on snack foods. The current research examines the extent to which food choice modeling of a main dish occurs in a real-life context and whether people are aware of being influenced by others. The lunch orders of café patrons were surreptitiously tracked and participants were recruited after they paid for their lunch. Participants were asked what they ordered, whether they were influenced by the prior order, and what their relationship was to the person ahead of them in line. We analyzed the data of participants who were not acquainted with the person ahead of them (N = 174). As hypothesized, participants' main-dish lunch orders matched the choice of the person ordering ahead of them in line at rates significantly higher than chance. A significant modeling effect was observed even among participants who reported that their order was not influenced by the prior order. This research provided evidence of main-dish choice modeling occurring in real-life eating situations and outside of conscious awareness - demonstrating a powerful social influence on eating behaviours.