The spider toxin Phα1ß recombinant possesses strong analgesic activity.

The native Phα1ß - a Voltage-Gated Calcium Channel (VGCC) blocker - and its Recombinant Version - were both tested in rodent pain models with an intraplantar injections of capsaicin or formalin, a chronic constriction injury, and melanoma cancer related pain. The formalin nociceptive behaviour in the neurogenic phase was not affected by the toxin pre-treatments, while in the inflammatory phase, Phα1ß and the Recombinant form caused a significant reduction. The nociception that was triggered by capsaicin, an agonist of the TRPV1 vanilloid receptor, was totally blocked by 100 pmol/site, i.t. of Phα1ß or the recombinant version. For the neuropathic pain that was induced by a chronic constriction injury of the sciatic nerve, Phα1ß and its Recombinant reduced the allodynia that was induced by the CCI procedure in the rats and the hypersensitivity lasted for 4 h. Fourteen days after the inoculation of the B16-F10 melanoma cells in the mice, a marked hyperalgesia was induced in the melanoma cancer pain model. Phα1ß and the Recombinant form reduced the hyperalgesia with a full reversion at 100 pmol/site i.t. The inhibitory effects of the nociception that was induced by native Phα1ß and the Recombinant in the studied pain models were not statistically different and they developed with no side effects.

PhTx3-4, a Spider Toxin Calcium Channel Blocker, Reduces NMDA-Induced Injury of the Retina.

The in vivo neuroprotective effect of PhTx3-4, a spider toxin N-P/Q calcium channel blocker, was studied in a rat model of NMDA-induced injury of the retina. NMDA (N-Methyl-D-Aspartate)-induced retinal injury in rats reduced the b-wave amplitude by 62% ± 3.6%, indicating the severity of the insult. PhTx3-4 treatment increased the amplitude of the b-wave, which was almost equivalent to the control retinas that were not submitted to injury. The PhTx3-4 functional protection of the retinas recorded on the ERG also was observed in the neuroprotection of retinal cells. NMDA-induced injury reduced live cells in the retina layers and the highest reduction, 84%, was in the ganglion cell layer. Notably, PhTx3-4 treatment caused a remarkable reduction of dead cells in the retina layers, and the highest neuroprotective effect was in the ganglion cells layer. NMDA-induced cytotoxicity of the retina increased the release of glutamate, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and oxidative stress. PhTx3-4 treatment reduced glutamate release, ROS production and oxidative stress measured by malondialdehyde. Thus, we presented for the first time evidence of in vivo neuroprotection from NMDA-induced retinal injury by PhTx3-4 (-ctenitoxin-Pn3a), a spider toxin that blocks N-P/Q calcium channels.

PnPP-19, a Synthetic and Nontoxic Peptide Designed from a Phoneutria nigriventer Toxin, Potentiates Erectile Function via NO/cGMP.

PURPOSE: We designed a peptide, PnPP-19, comprising the potential active core of the Phoneutria nigriventer native toxin PnTx2-6. We investigated its role on erectile function, and its toxicity and immunogenicity. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Erectile function was evaluated by the intracavernous pressure-to-mean arterial pressure ratio during electrical field stimulation on rat pelvic ganglia. Cavernous strips were contracted with phenylephrine and relaxation was induced by electrical field stimulation with or without PnPP-19 (10(-8) M). Activity on sodium channels was evaluated by electrophysiological screening of transfected channels on Xenopus oocytes and dorsal root ganglion cells. Antibodies were detected by indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in mice previously treated with the peptide. Histopathological studies were performed with mouse organs treated with different doses of PnPP-19. RESULTS: PnPP-19 was able to potentiate erection at 4 and 8 Hz in vivo and ex vivo. It showed no toxicity and low immunogenicity in mice, and did not affect sodium channels or rat hearts. PnPP-19 increased cyclic guanosine monophosphate levels at 8 Hz. This effect was inhibited by L-NAME (10(-4) M). Erectile function was partially inhibited by 7-nitroindazole (10(-5) M), a selective inhibitor of neuronal nitric oxide synthase. CONCLUSIONS: PnPP-19 potentiates erection in vivo and ex vivo via the nitric oxide/cyclic guanosine monophosphate pathway. It does not affect sodium channels or rat hearts and shows no toxicity and low immunogenicity. These findings make it a promising candidate as a novel drug in the therapy of erectile dysfunction.

Effects of the calcium channel blockers Phα1ß and ω-conotoxin MVIIA on capsaicin and acetic acid-induced visceral nociception in mice.

UNLABELLED: The effects of intrathecal administration of the toxins Phα1ß and ω-conotoxin MVIIA were investigated in visceral nociception induced by an intraperitoneal injection of acetic acid and an intracolonic application of capsaicin. The pretreatments for 2h with the toxins reduced the number of writhes or nociceptive behaviors compared with the control mice. Phα1ß administration resulted in an Imax of 84±6 and an ID50 of 12 (5-27), and ω-conotoxin MVIIA resulted in an Imax of 82±9 and an ID50 of 11 (4-35) in the contortions induced by the intraperitoneal injection of acetic acid. The administration of Phα1ß resulted in an Imax of 64±4 and an ID50 of 18 (9-38), and ω-conotoxin MVIIA resulted in an Imax of 71±9 and an ID50 of 9 (1-83) in the contortions induced by intracolonic capsaicin administration. Phα1ß (100/site) or ω-conotoxin MVIIA (30pmol/site) pretreatments caused a reduction in CSF glutamate release in mice intraperitoneally injected with acetic acid or treated with intracolonic capsaicin. The toxin pretreatments reduced the ROS levels induced by intraperitoneal acetic acid injection. Phα1ß, but not ω-conotoxin MVIIA, reduced significantly the ROS levels induced by intracolonic capsaicin administration. PERSPECTIVE: Phα1ß is a ω-toxin with high therapeutic index and a broader action on calcium channels. It shows analgesic effect in several rodents' models of pain, including visceral pain, suggesting that this toxin has the potential to be used in clinical setting as a drug in the control of persistent pathological pain.

Mechanisms involved in the nociception triggered by the venom of the armed spider Phoneutria nigriventer.

BACKGROUND: The frequency of accidental spider bites in Brazil is growing, and poisoning due to bites from the spider genus Phoneutria nigriventer is the second most frequent source of such accidents. Intense local pain is the major symptom reported after bites of P. nigriventer, although the mechanisms involved are still poorly understood. Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify the mechanisms involved in nociception triggered by the venom of Phoneutria nigriventer (PNV). METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Twenty microliters of PNV or PBS was injected into the mouse paw (intraplantar, i.pl.). The time spent licking the injected paw was considered indicative of the level of nociception. I.pl. injection of PNV produced spontaneous nociception, which was reduced by arachnid antivenin (ArAv), local anaesthetics, opioids, acetaminophen and dipyrone, but not indomethacin. Boiling or dialysing the venom reduced the nociception induced by the venom. PNV-induced nociception is not dependent on glutamate or histamine receptors or on mast cell degranulation, but it is mediated by the stimulation of sensory fibres that contain serotonin 4 (5-HT4) and vanilloid receptors (TRPV1). We detected a kallikrein-like kinin-generating enzyme activity in tissue treated with PNV, which also contributes to nociception. Inhibition of enzymatic activity or administration of a receptor antagonist for kinin B2 was able to inhibit the nociception induced by PNV. PNV nociception was also reduced by the blockade of tetrodotoxin-sensitive Na(+) channels, acid-sensitive ion channels (ASIC) and TRPV1 receptors. CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE: Results suggest that both low- and high-molecular-weight toxins of PNV produce spontaneous nociception through direct or indirect action of kinin B2, TRPV1, 5-HT4 or ASIC receptors and voltage-dependent sodium channels present in sensory neurons but not in mast cells. Understanding the mechanisms involved in nociception caused by PNV are of interest not only for better treating poisoning by P. nigriventer but also appreciating the diversity of targets triggered by PNV toxins.

An evaluation of the antinociceptive effects of Phα1ß, a neurotoxin from the spider Phoneutria nigriventer, and ω-conotoxin MVIIA, a cone snail Conus magus toxin, in rat model of inflammatory and neuropathic pain.

Voltage-sensitive calcium channels (VSCCs) underlie cell excitability and are involved in the mechanisms that generate and maintain neuropathic and inflammatory pain. We evaluated in rats the effects of two VSCC blockers, ω-conotoxin MVIIA and Phα1ß, in models of inflammatory and neuropathic pain induced with complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) and chronic constrictive injury (CCI), respectively. We also evaluated the effects of the toxins on capsaicin-induced Ca(2+) influx in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons obtained from rats exposed to both models of pain. A single intrathecal injection of Phα1ß reversibly inhibits CFA and CCI-induced mechanical hyperalgesia longer than a single injection of ω-conotoxin MVIIA. Phα1ß and MVIIA also inhibited capsaicin-induced Ca(2+) influx in DRG neurons. The inhibitory effect of Phα1ß on capsaicin-induced calcium transients in DRG neurons was greater in the CFA model of pain, while the inhibitory effect of ω-conotoxin MVIIA was greater in the CCI model. The management of chronic inflammatory and neuropathic pain is still a major challenge for clinicians. Phα1ß, a reversible inhibitor of VSCCs with a preference for N-type Ca(2+) channels, has potential as a novel therapeutic agent for inflammatory and neuropathic pain. Clinical studies are necessary to establish the role of Phα1ß in the treatment of chronic pain.

Endothelium-dependent relaxation of rat mesenteric arterial rings by a Phoneutria nigriventer venom fraction.

Phoneutria nigriventer spider venom has been described as acting on several cardiovascular sites. In the present paper, a semi-purified fraction of this spider venom was studied to observe any contractile or relaxing effect in rat mesenteric arterial rings (MAR). Spider venom was first fractionated by gel filtration and subsequently by gradual isocratic steps in 0.1% trifluoroacetic acid. The first fraction of this last fractionation step is studied in the present paper and due to its main effect, it was named NORF (nitric oxide releasing fraction). No direct contractile effect was induced by NORF in relaxed MAR, suggesting no NORF-induced neurotransmitter release in this preparation. No significant influence of NORF was observed on concentration-response curves to phenylephrine on endothelium-denuded MAR, but a significant inhibitory shift of concentration-respense curves was observed on endothelium-preserved MAR (EC50 = 0.39 +/- 0.07 microM for control and EC50 = 0.68 +/- 0.14 microM with NORF). NORF induced concentration-dependent relaxation in endothelium-preserved phenylephrine pre-contracted MAR but not in endothelium-denuded MAR. NORF-induced relaxation was inhibited by the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor L-NAME (N(omega)-nitro-arginine methyl ester). Indomethacin or HOE-140 (D-Arg-[Hyp3,Thi5,D-Tic7,Oic8]-bradykinin) had no significant effect on NORF-induced relaxation. Acetylcholine- and NORF-induced relaxation of pre-contracted MAR were differently inhibited by atropine. The pA2 value for atropine-acetylcholine was 9.78 +/- 0.06 and that for atropine-NORF was 8.53 +/- 0.30 (P<0.01). These observations suggest that NORF induces concentration-dependent liberation of nitric oxide from MAR endothelium and that a non-muscarinic mechanism might be involved in this effect. Our data suggest no involvement of prostanoids or bradykinin in the relaxing mechanism.