Oldest old's travel mode choice and new mobility technology acceptance: case in America and China.

Introduction: The oldest olds (aged 85 and over) are the fastest-growing age segment. However, our understanding of their mobility is limited. To address this gap, we invited 19 U.S. and 30 Chinese "oldest old" to take part in focus groups and complete a mobility questionnaire. We focus on travel mode choice, which includes changes in travel modes, frequency of usage, and perceptions of comfort. Methods: Older adults' familiarity and acceptance of new mobility technologies (e.g., ridesharing, carsharing, and autonomous vehicles) were measured by questionnaire and focus group. Word clouds were also used to illustrate people's reasons for choosing their primary mode of transportation. Results and discussion: The results show that both panels of older adults similarly feel some extent of travel limitations. But the responses among the two groups differ: 18 American participants chose "drive myself" as their primary option a decade ago, while 11 chose it now; no Chinese participants selected it either a decade ago or now. Both currently and 10 years ago, there was a significant difference in mode choice between participants in China and the United States. However, this gap has narrowed over the past decade. Participants in China have significantly changed their transportation preferences compared to 10 years ago, while participants in the US have remained nearly unchanged. American respondents consider "ease" as an important factor, while Chinese respondents pay more attention to "safety" and "no other option to get around" when making travel mode choices. Compared to Chinese participants, American participants were more comfortable with driving an autonomous vehicle. These differences may result from the various developmental stages and transportation policies of the two countries. This study supports the development of new mobility technologies for the oldest old to improve their quality of life.

Reducing Isolation and Loneliness Through Membership in a Fitness Program for Older Adults: Implications for Health.

Objectives: To explore the effects of membership in a fitness program for older adults on social isolation, loneliness, and health. Method: Using survey responses from SilverSneakers members and matched nonmembers, regression path analysis was used to examine the influence of SilverSneakers membership on physical activity, social isolation, loneliness, and health, and the interrelationships among these concepts. Results: SilverSneakers membership directly increased physical activity and self-rated health, directly decreased social isolation, and indirectly decreased loneliness. Decreased social isolation and loneliness were associated with better self-rated health: social isolation and loneliness had independent direct effects on health, while social isolation also had an indirect effect on health mediated through loneliness. Discussion: Members of SilverSneakers experienced better health through increased physical activity, reduced social isolation, and reduced loneliness. Future research should explore independent effects of social isolation and loneliness on health and the mechanisms by which membership reduces social isolation and loneliness.

The Influence of Feelings While Driving Regular Cars on the Perception and Acceptance of Self-Driving Cars.

Self-driving vehicles will affect the future of transportation, but factors that underlie perception and acceptance of self-driving cars are yet unclear. Research on feelings as information and the affect heuristic has suggested that feelings are an important source of information, especially in situations of complexity and uncertainty. In this study (N = 1,484), we investigated how feelings related to traditional driving affect risk perception, benefit perception, and trust related to self-driving cars as well as people's acceptance of the technology. Due to limited experiences with and knowledge of self-driving cars, we expected that feelings related to a similar experience, namely, driving regular cars, would influence judgments of self-driving cars. Our results support this assumption. While positive feelings of enjoyment predicted higher benefit perception and trust, negative affect predicted higher risk and higher benefit perception of self-driving cars. Feelings of control were inversely related to risk and benefit perception, which is in line with research on the affect heuristic. Furthermore, negative affect was an important source of information for judgments of use and acceptance. Interest in using a self-driving car was also predicted by lower risk perception, higher benefit perception, and higher levels of trust in the technology. Although people's individual experiences with advanced vehicle technologies and knowledge were associated with perceptions and acceptance, many simply have never been exposed to the technology and know little about it. In the absence of this experience or knowledge, all that is left is the knowledge, experience, and feelings they have related to regular driving.

Self-reported and observed risky driving behaviors among frequent and infrequent cell phone users.

The apparently higher crash risk among individuals who use cell phones while driving may be due both to the direct interference of cell phone use with the driving task and tendencies to engage in risky driving behaviors independent of cell phone use. Measurements of actual highway driving performance, self-reported aberrant driving behaviors as measured by the Manchester Driver Behavior Questionnaire (DBQ), and attitudes toward speeding, passing behaviors and relative concern about being involved in a crash were assessed. Individuals who reported frequently using cell phones while driving were found to drive faster, change lanes more frequently, spend more time in the left lane, and engage in more instances of hard braking and high acceleration events. They also scored higher in self-reported driving violations on the DBQ and reported more positive attitudes toward speeding and passing than drivers who did not report using a cell phone regularly while driving. These results indicate that a greater reported frequency of cell phone use while driving is associated with a broader pattern of behaviors that are likely to increase the overall risk of crash involvement.

The impact of distractions on young adult drivers with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

Young adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are at higher risk for being involved in automobile crashes. Although driving simulators have been used to identify and understand underlying behaviors, prior research has focused largely on single-task, non-distracted driving. However, in-vehicle infotainment and communications systems often vie for a driver's attention, potentially increasing the risk of collision. This paper explores the impact of secondary tasks on individuals with and without ADHD, a medical condition known to affect the regulation of attention. Data are drawn from a validated driving simulation representing periods before, during, and after participation in a secondary cognitive task. A hands-free phone task was employed in a high stimulus, urban setting and a working memory task during low stimulus, highway driving. Drivers with ADHD had more difficulty on the telephone task, yet did not show an increased decrement in driving performance greater than control participants. In contrast, participants with ADHD showed a larger decline in driving performance than controls during a secondary task in a low demand setting. The results suggest that the interaction of the nature of the driving context and the secondary task has a significant influence on how drivers with ADHD allocate attention and, in-turn, on the relative impact on driving performance. Drivers with ADHD appear particularly susceptible to distraction during periods of low stimulus driving.

The validity of driving simulation for assessing differences between in-vehicle informational interfaces: A comparison with field testing.

Data from on-road and simulation studies were compared to assess the validity of measures generated in the simulator. In the on-road study, driver interaction with three manual address entry methods (keypad, touch screen and rotational controller) was assessed in an instrumented vehicle to evaluate relative usability and safety implications. A separate group of participants drove a similar protocol in a medium fidelity, fixed-base driving simulator to assess the extent to which simulator measures mirrored those obtained in the field. Visual attention and task measures mapped very closely between the two environments. In general, however, driving performance measures did not differentiate among devices at the level of demand employed in this study. The findings obtained for visual attention and task engagement suggest that medium fidelity simulation provides a safe and effective means to evaluate the effects of in-vehicle information systems (IVIS) designs on these categories of driver behaviour. STATEMENT OF RELEVANCE: Realistic evaluation of the user interface of IVIS has significant implications for both user acceptance and safety. This study addresses the validity of driving simulation for accurately modelling differences between interface methodologies by comparing results from the field with those from a medium fidelity, fixed-base simulator.

To drive or not to drive, that isn't the question-the meaning of self-regulation among older drivers.

PROBLEM: This research examines older drivers and how they rationalize and cope with their own changing psychological and physical functioning vis-à-vis self-regulation and driving. METHOD: A national survey was mailed to a sample of drivers over the age of 50. An overall response rate of 53.11% was achieved, with 3,824 valid responses returned. This paper discusses the qualitative findings of the open-ended questions in this survey. RESULTS: A rich, multidimensional description of self-regulation emerged from the data. Driving self-regulation was not simply a checklist of behaviors performed but a combination of attitudes and behaviors, including important social and psychological processes and automobile attributes. Household composition played an important role in determining what one's options were for getting around and how serious they were in enforcing self-regulation behaviors. DISCUSSION & SUMMARY: As a society, we must realize the importance of driving in maintaining independence, feelings of self-worth, and being connected to life and society. This research presents the qualitative findings of a nationwide survey of drivers over the age of 50. The results revealed that older drivers define self-regulation as much more than the changes in behaviors due to declining health and ability. The older adults in our research strongly emphasized the psychological processes surrounding independence, self-worth, remaining connected to life and society, and what role the automobile plays. Household composition impacted decisions related to self-regulation. For instance, those from a two-person household were more willing to let their partner drive or share in the driving, while those who lived alone were less likely to self-regulate their driving. IMPACT ON INDUSTRY: Education programs targeting older adults need to be expanded to include not only the behavioral components of self-regulation, but also the psychological factors that play an equally meaningful role. Legislators devising policy programs need to reconsider what are viable transportation options for the older adult.

Health, safety, self-regulation and the older driver: it's not just a matter of age.

PROBLEM: The purpose of this research was to examine the impact of age and health on patterns of driving and self-regulation among older adults who still drive. METHOD: This analysis presents the results of a nationwide survey of drivers who are 50+(N=3,824, 53.11% response rate), focusing on questions about the impact of their self-reported health on attitudes toward and self-regulation of driving. RESULTS: The data indicate that as age increases, so too does reported self-regulation of driving, increasing sharply among those ages 70 and older. The data also indicate that respondent's reported confidence in driving and their enjoyment of driving decline as they age. Health status bears a significant relationship with all three of these variables, positively related to confidence in driving skills and to enjoyment in driving, but negatively related to self-regulation reports. As self-reported health declines, respondent's report engages in greater voluntary restrictions of their driving. DISCUSSION: All too often, the driving decision is linked primarily to chronological age. Analysis done here indicates that age alone is not the best indicator of self-regulation and how older adults change their driving behaviors. SUMMARY: This research presents the results of a nationwide survey of 50+ drivers and their self-reported driving, self-regulation behaviors, and health status. Strong support was found for the argument that chronological age is not an adequate measure of self-regulating behaviors and driver safety among those 50+. In particular, it was found that a person's health status and the interaction between age and health are essential considerations in the decisions around self-regulation and driving. People tend to self-regulate more with age, but the effect becomes much more pronounced as health status declines. IMPACT ON INDUSTRY: In the coming years, if older adults can't get to where they want to go and continue to be viable consumers in our national fabric, all industries will eventually suffer. Transportation is a key component to the nation's social contract with older individuals and their families.

At the crossroads: development and evaluation of a dementia caregiver group intervention to assist in driving cessation.

Deciding when an individual with dementia must reduce or stop driving can be a stressful issue for family caregivers. The purpose of this study was to develop a group intervention to assist these caregivers with driving issues and to provide a preliminary evaluation of the comparative effectiveness of this At the Crossroads intervention. Participants were randomized to one of three arms: (1) active intervention (four 2-hour manualized educational/support group meetings; n = 31); (2) written materials only (participants received written materials after a pretest; n = 23); and (3)control (participants received written materials after a posttest; n = 12).Participants were administered a battery of self-report and interview-based questionnaires at baseline and again 2 months later. At follow-up, the active intervention group scored significantly better than both other groups on key outcome variables, including self-efficacy, communication, and preparedness. The At the Crossroads caregiver intervention appears to effectively provide education and support needed for caregivers to address driving-related issues with their loved ones.

Gender differences in self-regulation patterns and attitudes toward driving among older adults.

The automobile is essential for many older adults to fulfill their daily needs, especially since many live where they lack access to public transit or other acceptable modes of transportation. Increased self-regulation is one way older drivers continue to drive safely and maintain mobility. This research considers whether self-regulation attitudes and patterns differ by gender. Results indicate that women and men report distinct patterns of self-regulation behaviors. Age, health status, and household status also interact with gender, influencing the extent of self-regulation. The results also show that women report lower levels of confidence in their driving skills than men, although the difference varies based on whether or not a woman lives alone. Implications of these results are considered for an aging population--particularly women--that over the coming decades will be more reliant on the automobile for transportation than ever before.

Secondary analysis of time of day on simulated driving performance.

PROBLEM: Age and gender are frequently controlled for in studies of driving performance, but the effects of time of day or circadian cycles on performance are often not considered. Previous research on time of day effects of simulated driving is contradictory and provides little guidance for understanding the impact of these variables on results. METHODS: Using driving simulator data from 79 subjects ages 18 to 65, this paper focuses on the impact of age, gender, and time of day on the simulated driving performance of subjects who self-selected the time of participation. RESULTS: Time of day effects were consistently evident for drivers' speed overall and across different simulated environments. Drivers in the late afternoon period consistently drove significantly slower than drivers in other time periods. Age and gender affected speed such that women and those participants 50 and older tended to drive more slowly. Time of day also had an effect on reaction time and on speed variability measures. Gender did not have significant effects on reaction time or variability measures, but age effects were present. SUMMARY: Taken together, the results suggest that time of day effects should be considered as part of simulated driving performance, and that interactions between time of day and other variables, notably age, should be controlled for as part of future research. IMPACT ON INDUSTRY: Implications of these findings on current efforts for older driver testing are discussed.

Task-induced fatigue and collisions in adult drivers with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

OBJECTIVE: This study compares collision involvement between adult drivers with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and control participants in a simulation experiment designed to enhance the effects of fatigue. Because the effects of ADHD include difficulties in maintaining attention, drivers with ADHD were hypothesized to be more susceptible to the effects of fatigue while driving. METHODS: Data are drawn from a validated driving simulation study, portions of which were focused on enhancing the effects of fatigue. The simulator data are supplemented with written questionnaire data. Drivers with ADHD were compared with controls. RESULTS: The self-report data indicated that drivers with ADHD were more likely to report having been involved in an accident within the previous five years. Simulation data showed that time of day of participation in the experiment were significantly related to likelihood of collision, and that these effects were further exacerbated by ADHD status. Participants with ADHD were more likely than controls to be involved in a crash in the simulator regardless of time of day, but the effects were particularly pronounced in the morning, and the rate of increase in accident involvement from the late afternoon into the evening was greater among participants with ADHD. No differences in self-reported sleep patterns or caffeine use were found between participants with ADHD and controls. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that drivers with ADHD became fatigued more quickly than controls. Such drivers thus face greater risk of involvement in accidents on highways or open roadways where the visual and task monotony of the environment contribute to greater driver fatigue.

Using self-reported data to assess the validity of driving simulation data.

In this article, we use self-reported driving behaviors from a written questionnaire to assess the measurement validity of data derived from a driving simulation. The issue of validity concerns the extent to which measures from the experimental context map onto constructs of interest. Following a description of the experimental methods and setting, an argument for the face validity of the data is advanced. Convergent validity was assessed by regressing behaviors observed in thedriving simulatoron self-reported measures of driving behaviors. Significant relationships were found across six measures: accidents, speeding, velocity, passing, weaving between traffic, and behavior at stop signs. Concurrent validity was evaluated with an analysis of simulator accident involvement and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder status. Discriminant validity was assessed using a multitrait-multimethod matrix of simulator and questionnaire data. We concluded that although the relationship between self-reported behaviors and observed responses in the simulator falls short of perfect correspondence, the data collected from the driving simulator are valid measures of the behaviors of interest.

Behavior differences in drivers with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: the driving behavior questionnaire.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has been linked to an increased number of driving citations, especially for speeding and a four-fold increase in accident risk. Using three factors--errors, lapses and violations--found in prior work, we ran regression analyses to explore the impact of ADHD status, gender and age on error, lapse and violation report scores. The results indicate that ADHD status is positively and significantly related to error, lapse and violation scores. In the cases of errors and violations, however, interactions between ADHD status and age are significant such that older participants with ADHD do not differ statistically from controls. There were no significant effects of age on error, lapse or violation scores for control participants. Consistent with earlier work, gender was significantly related to violation scores, but not to errors or lapses, such that men were more likely than women to report higher violation scores, controlling for ADHD status and age. We consider possible explanations for these findings and discuss the implications of these results for the accident risk of individuals with ADHD as they age.