Chest Decompressions - The Driver of CPR Efficacy: Exploring the Relationship Between Compression Rate, Depth, Recoil Velocity, and End-Tidal CO2.

OBJECTIVE: Cardiopulmonary arrest survival is dependent on optimization of perfusion via high quality cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), defined by a complex dynamic between rate, depth, and recoil velocity. Here we explore the interaction between these metrics and create a model that explores the impact of these variables on compression efficacy. METHODS: This study was performed in a large urban/suburban fire-based emergency medical services (EMS) system over a nine-month period from 2019 to 2020. Manual chest compression parameters [rate/depth/recoil velocity] from a cohort of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OOHCA) victims were abstracted from monitor defibrillators (ZOLL X-series) and end-tidal carbon dioxide (ETCO2) from sensors. The mean values of these parameters were modeled against each other using multiple regression and structural equation modeling with ETCO2 as a dependent variable. RESULTS: Data from a total of 335 patients were analyzed. Strong linear relationships were observed between compression depth/recoil velocity (r = .87, p < .001), ETCO2/depth (r = .23, p < .001) and ETCO2/recoil velocity (r = .61, p < .001). Parabolic relationships were observed between rate/depth (r = .39, p < .001), rate/recoil velocity (r = .26, p < .001), and ETCO2/rate (r = .20, p = .003). Rate, depth, and recoil velocity were modeled as independent variables and ETCO2 as a dependent variable with excellence model performance suggesting the primary driver of stroke volume to be recoil velocity rather than compression depth. CONCLUSIONS: We used manual CPR metrics from out of hospital cardiac arrests to model the relationship between CPR metrics. These results consistently support the importance of chest recoil on CPR hemodynamics, suggesting that guidelines for optimal CPR should emphasize the importance of maximum chest recoil.

A Descriptive Analysis of Air Medical Pediatric Rapid Sequence Intubation: Successes and Opportunities.

OBJECTIVE: Advanced airway management, including the use of rapid sequence intubation (RSI), is fundamental in resuscitation. However, the reported experience with pediatric airway management is limited because of the relatively low number of emergency RSI procedures in children. The aim of this study was to document the experience with pediatric RSI in a large air medical database and explore opportunities for improvement. METHODS: All pediatric patients (age < 18 years) undergoing RSI by air medical crews between 2015 and 2019 were included in this analysis. Subjects were divided a priori into 3 age subgroups (0-2 years, 3-8 years, and 9-17 years). The primary variables of interest included overall intubation success, first-attempt intubation success, and first-attempt intubation success without desaturation. The rates of positive-pressure ventilation (PPV) use for preoxygenation and oxygen desaturation were also explored. RESULTS: A total of 1,091 pediatric RSI patients were included. The overall intubation success rate was 98% (0-2 years = 96%, 3-8 years = 97%, and 9-17 years = 98%), with 91% intubated on the first attempt (0-2 years = 86%, 3-8 years = 90%, and 9-17 years = 92%) and 87% intubated on the first attempt without oxygen desaturation (0-2 years = 80%, 3-8 years = 88%, and 9-17 years = 90%). A sharp decline in intubation success was observed with preoxygenation SpO2 values < 97% across all patients. Younger patients (0-2 years) had lower initial SpO2 values and decreased first-attempt success rates with and without desaturation. These patients were less likely to receive PPV during preoxygenation attempts and had lower use of video laryngoscopy or a bougie on the initial intubation attempt. CONCLUSION: In this study, we documented high success rates for air medical pediatric RSI. Higher target SpO2 values may be justified during preoxygenation. Intubation success, PPV use for preoxygenation, video laryngoscopy, and the use of a bougie were lower for younger patients.

Society of Critical Care Medicine Guidelines on Recognizing and Responding to Clinical Deterioration Outside the ICU: 2023.

RATIONALE: Clinical deterioration of patients hospitalized outside the ICU is a source of potentially reversible morbidity and mortality. To address this, some acute care hospitals have implemented systems aimed at detecting and responding to such patients. OBJECTIVES: To provide evidence-based recommendations for hospital clinicians and administrators to optimize recognition and response to clinical deterioration in non-ICU patients. PANEL DESIGN: The 25-member panel included representatives from medicine, nursing, respiratory therapy, pharmacy, patient/family partners, and clinician-methodologists with expertise in developing evidence-based Clinical Practice Guidelines. METHODS: We generated actionable questions using the Population, Intervention, Control, and Outcomes (PICO) format and performed a systematic review of the literature to identify and synthesize the best available evidence. We used the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation Approach to determine certainty in the evidence and to formulate recommendations and good practice statements (GPSs). RESULTS: The panel issued 10 statements on recognizing and responding to non-ICU patients with critical illness. Healthcare personnel and institutions should ensure that all vital sign acquisition is timely and accurate (GPS). We make no recommendation on the use of continuous vital sign monitoring among unselected patients. We suggest focused education for bedside clinicians in signs of clinical deterioration, and we also suggest that patient/family/care partners' concerns be included in decisions to obtain additional opinions and help (both conditional recommendations). We recommend hospital-wide deployment of a rapid response team or medical emergency team (RRT/MET) with explicit activation criteria (strong recommendation). We make no recommendation about RRT/MET professional composition or inclusion of palliative care members on the responding team but suggest that the skill set of responders should include eliciting patients' goals of care (conditional recommendation). Finally, quality improvement processes should be part of a rapid response system. CONCLUSIONS: The panel provided guidance to inform clinicians and administrators on effective processes to improve the care of patients at-risk for developing critical illness outside the ICU.

Executive Summary: Society of Critical Care Medicine Guidelines on Recognizing and Responding to Clinical Deterioration Outside the ICU.

RATIONALE: Clinical deterioration of patients hospitalized outside the ICU is a source of potentially reversible morbidity and mortality. To address this, some acute care facilities have implemented systems aimed at detecting and responding to such patients. OBJECTIVES: To provide evidence-based recommendations for hospital clinicians and administrators to optimize recognition and response to clinical deterioration in non-ICU patients. PANEL DESIGN: The 25-member panel included representatives from medicine, nursing, respiratory therapy, pharmacy, patient/family partners, and clinician-methodologists with expertise in developing evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. METHODS: We generated actionable questions using the Population, Intervention, Control, and Outcomes format and performed a systematic review of the literature to identify and synthesize the best available evidence. We used the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation approach to determine certainty in the evidence and to formulate recommendations and good practice statements (GPSs). RESULTS: The panel issued 10 statements on recognizing and responding to non-ICU patients with critical illness. Healthcare personnel and institutions should ensure that all vital sign acquisition is timely and accurate (GPS). We make no recommendation on the use of continuous vital sign monitoring among "unselected" patients due to the absence of data regarding the benefit and the potential harms of false positive alarms, the risk of alarm fatigue, and cost. We suggest focused education for bedside clinicians in signs of clinical deterioration, and we also suggest that patient/family/care partners' concerns be included in decisions to obtain additional opinions and help (both conditional recommendations). We recommend hospital-wide deployment of a rapid response team or medical emergency team (RRT/MET) with explicit activation criteria (strong recommendation). We make no recommendation about RRT/MET professional composition or inclusion of palliative care members on the responding team but suggest that the skill set of responders should include eliciting patients' goals of care (conditional recommendation). Finally, quality improvement processes should be part of a rapid response system (GPS). CONCLUSIONS: The panel provided guidance to inform clinicians and administrators on effective processes to improve the care of patients at-risk for developing critical illness outside the ICU.

Expert consensus on difficult airway assessment.

Background: Identifying a potentially difficult airway is crucial both in anaesthesia in the operating room (OR) and non-operation room sites. There are no guidelines or expert consensus focused on the assessment of the difficult airway before, so this expert consensus is developed to provide guidance for airway assessment, making this process more standardized and accurate to reduce airway-related complications and improve safety. Methods: Seven members from the Airway Management Group of the Chinese Society of Anaesthesiology (CSA) met to discuss the first draft and then this was sent to 15 international experts for review, comment, and approval. The Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) is used to determine the level of evidence and grade the strength of recommendations. The recommendations were revised through a three-round Delphi survey from experts. Results: This expert consensus provides a comprehensive approach to airway assessment based on the medical history, physical examination, comprehensive scores, imaging, and new developments including transnasal endoscopy, virtual laryngoscopy, and 3D printing. In addition, this consensus also reviews some new technologies currently under development such as prediction from facial images and voice information with the aim of proposing new research directions for the assessment of difficult airway. Conclusions: This consensus applies to anesthesiologists, critical care, and emergency physicians refining the preoperative airway assessment and preparing an appropriate intubation strategy for patients with a potentially difficult airway.

Higher Oxygenation Is Associated with Improved Survival in Severe Traumatic Brain Injury but Not Traumatic Shock.

Pre-hospital resuscitation of critically injured patients traditionally includes supplemental oxygen therapy to address potential hypoxemia. The objective of this study was to explore the association between pre-hospital hypoxemia, hyperoxemia, and mortality in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) and traumatic shock. We hypothesized that both hypoxemia and hyperoxemia would be associated with increased mortality. We used the Resuscitation Outcomes Consortium Prospective Observational Prehospital and Hospital Registry for Trauma (ROC PROPHET) database of critically injured patients to identify a severe TBI cohort (pre-hospital Glasgow Coma Scale [GCS] 3-8) and a traumatic shock cohort (systolic blood pressure ≤90 mm Hg and pre-hospital GCS >8). Arterial blood gas (ABG) obtained within 30 min of hospital arrival was required for inclusion. Patients with hypoxemia (PaO2 <80 mm Hg) and hyperoxemia (PaO2 >400 mm Hg) were compared to those with normoxemia (PaO2 80-400 mm Hg) with regard to the primary outcome measure of in-hospital mortality in both the TBI and traumatic shock cohorts. Multiple logistic regression was used to calculate odds ratios (ORs) after adjustment for multiple covariables. In addition, regression spline curves were generated to estimate the risk of death as a continuous function of PaO2 levels. A total of 1248 TBI patients were included, of whom 396 (32%) died before hospital discharge. Associations between hypoxemia and increased mortality (OR, 1.8; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.2-2.8; p = 0.008) and between hyperoxemia and decreased mortality (OR, 0.6; 95% CI, 0.4-0.9; p = 0.018) were observed. A total of 582 traumatic shock patients were included, of whom 52 (9%) died before hospital discharge. No statistically significant associations were observed between in-hospital mortality and either hypoxemia (OR, 1.0; 95% CI, 0.4-2.4; p = 0.987) or hyperoxemia (OR, 1.9; 95% CI, 0.6-5.7; p = 0.269). Among patients with severe TBI but not traumatic shock, hypoxemia was associated with an increase of in-hospital mortality and hyperoxemia was associated with a decrease of in-hospital mortality.

Bolus Vasopressor Use for Air Medical Rapid Sequence Intubation: The Vasopressor Intravenous Push to Enhance Resuscitation Trial.

BACKGROUND: Rapid sequence intubation (RSI) may compromise perfusion because of the use of sympatholytic medications as well as subsequent positive pressure ventilation. The use of bolus vasopressor agents may reverse hypotension and prevent arrest. METHODS: This was a prospective, observational study enrolling air medical patients with critical peri-RSI hypotension (systolic blood pressure [SBP] < 90 mm Hg) to receive either arginine vasopressin (aVP), 2 U intravenously every 5 minutes, for trauma patients or phenylephrine (PE), 200 µg intravenously every 5 minutes, for nontrauma patients. The main outcome measures included an increase in SBP, a reversal of hypotension, and the occurrence of dysrhythmia or hypertension (SBP > 160 mm Hg) within 20 minutes of vasopressor administration. RESULTS: A total of 523 patients (344 aVP and 179 PE) were enrolled over 2 years. An increase in SBP was observed in 326 aVP patients (95%), with reversal of hypotension in 272 patients (79%). An increase in SBP was observed in 171 PE patients (96%), with reversal of hypotension in 148 patients (83%). A low rate of rebound hypertension was observed for both aVP and PE patients. CONCLUSION: Both aVP and PE appear to be safe and effective for treating critical hypotension in the peri-RSI period.

Optimizing Physiology During Prehospital Airway Management: An NAEMSP Position Statement and Resource Document.

Airway management is a critical component of resuscitation but also carries the potential to disrupt perfusion, oxygenation, and ventilation as a consequence of airway insertion efforts, the use of medications, and the conversion to positive-pressure ventilation. NAEMSP recommends:Airway management should be approached as an organized system of care, incorporating principles of teamwork and operational awareness.EMS clinicians should prevent or correct hypoxemia and hypotension prior to advanced airway insertion attempts.Continuous physiological monitoring must be used during airway management to guide the timing of, limit the duration of, and inform decision making during advanced airway insertion attempts.Initial and ongoing confirmation of advanced airway placement must be performed using waveform capnography. Airway devices must be secured using a reliable method.Perfusion, oxygenation, and ventilation should be optimized before, during, and after advanced airway insertion.To mitigate aspiration after advanced airway insertion, EMS clinicians should consider placing a patient in a semi-upright position.When appropriate, patients undergoing advanced airway placement should receive suitable pharmacologic anxiolysis, amnesia, and analgesia. In select cases, the use of neuromuscular blocking agents may be appropriate.

Rationale and Strategies for Development of an Optimal Bundle of Management for Cardiac Arrest.

OBJECTIVES: To construct a highly detailed yet practical, attainable roadmap for enhancing the likelihood of neurologically intact survival following sudden cardiac arrest. DESIGN SETTING AND PATIENTS: Population-based outcomes following out-of-hospital cardiac arrest were collated for 10 U.S. counties in Alaska, California, Florida, Ohio, Minnesota, Utah, and Washington. The 10 identified emergency medical services systems were those that had recently reported significant improvements in neurologically intact survival after introducing a more comprehensive approach involving citizens, hospitals, and evolving strategies for incorporating technology-based, highly choreographed care and training. Detailed inventories of in-common elements were collated from the ten 9-1-1 agencies and assimilated. For reference, combined averaged outcomes for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest occurring January 1, 2017, to February 28, 2018, were compared with concurrent U.S. outcomes reported by the well-established Cardiac Arrest Registry to Enhance Survival. INTERVENTIONS: Most commonly, interventions and components from the ten 9-1-1 systems consistently included extensive public cardiopulmonary resuscitation training, 9-1-1 system-connected smart phone applications, expedited dispatcher procedures, cardiopulmonary resuscitation quality monitoring, mechanical cardiopulmonary resuscitation, devices for enhancing negative intrathoracic pressure regulation, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation protocols, body temperature management procedures, rapid cardiac angiography, and intensive involvement of medical directors, operational and quality assurance officers, and training staff. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Compared with Cardiac Arrest Registry to Enhance Survival (n = 78,704), the cohorts from the 10 emergency medical services agencies examined (n = 2,911) demonstrated significantly increased likelihoods of return of spontaneous circulation (mean 37.4% vs 31.5%; p < 0.001) and neurologically favorable hospital discharge, particularly after witnessed collapses involving bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation and shockable cardiac rhythms (mean 10.7% vs 8.4%; p < 0.001; and 41.6% vs 29.2%; p < 0.001, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: The likelihood of neurologically favorable survival following out-of-hospital cardiac arrest can improve substantially in communities that conscientiously and meticulously introduce a well-sequenced, highly choreographed, system-wide portfolio of both traditional and nonconventional approaches to training, technologies, and physiologic management. The commonalities found in the analyzed systems create a compelling case that other communities can also improve out-of-hospital cardiac arrest outcomes significantly by conscientiously exploring and adopting similar bundles of system organization and care.

The Use of Ketamine for Air Medical Rapid Sequence Intubation Was Not Associated With a Decrease in Hypotension or Cardiopulmonary Arrest.

OBJECTIVE: Rapid sequence intubation (RSI) is associated with a number of complications that can increase morbidity and mortality. Among RSI agents used to blunt awareness of the procedure and produce amnesia, ketamine is unique in its classification as a dissociative agent rather than a central nervous system depressant. Thus, ketamine should have a lower risk of peri-RSI hypotension because of the minimal sympatholysis compared with other agents. Recent recommendations include the use of ketamine for RSI in hemodynamically unstable patients. The main goal of this analysis was to explore the incidence of hypotension and/or cardiopulmonary arrest in patients receiving ketamine, etomidate, midazolam, and fentanyl during air medical RSI. We hypothesized that ketamine would be associated with a lower risk of hemodynamic complications, particularly after adjusting for covariables reflecting patient acuity. In addition, we anticipated that an increased prevalence of ketamine use would be associated with a decreased incidence of peri-RSI hypotension and/or arrest. METHODS: This was a retrospective, observational study using a large air medical airway database. A waiver of informed consent was granted by our institutional review board. Descriptive statistics were used to present demographic and clinical data. The incidence rates of hypotension and cardiopulmonary arrest were calculated for each sedative/dissociative agent. Multivariable logistic regression was used to calculate the odds ratios of both hypotension and arrest for each of the sedative/dissociative agents. The prevalence of use for each agent and the incidence of hemodynamic complications (hypotension and arrest) were determined over time. RESULTS: A total of 7,466 RSI patients were included in this analysis. The use of ketamine increased over the duration of the study. Ketamine was associated with a higher incidence of both hypotension and arrest compared with other agents, even after adjustment for multiple covariables. The overall incidence of hypotension, desaturation, and cardiopulmonary arrest did not change over the study period. CONCLUSIONS: Although the incidence of hemodynamic complications was higher in patients receiving ketamine, this may reflect a selection bias toward more hemodynamically unstable patients in the ketamine cohort. The incidence of hypotension and arrest did not change over time despite an increase in the prevalence of ketamine use for air medical RSI. These data do not support a safer hemodynamic profile for ketamine.

The HEAVEN criteria predict laryngoscopic view and intubation success for both direct and video laryngoscopy: a cohort analysis.

BACKGROUND: Existing difficult airway prediction tools are not practical for emergency intubation and do not incorporate physiological data. The HEAVEN criteria (Hypoxaemia, Extremes of size, Anatomic challenges, Vomit/blood/fluid, Exsanguination, Neck mobility) may be more relevant for emergency rapid sequence intubation (RSI). METHODS: A retrospective analysis included air medical RSI patients. A checklist was used to assess HEAVEN criteria prior to RSI, and Cormack-Lehane (CL) laryngoscopic view was recorded for the first intubation attempt. The incidence of a difficult (CL III/IV) laryngoscopic view as well as failure to intubate on first attempt with and without oxygen desaturation were determined for each of the HEAVEN criteria and total number of HEAVEN criteria. In addition, the association between HEAVEN criteria and both laryngoscopic view and intubation performance were quantified using multivariate logistic regression for direct laryngoscopy (DL) and video laryngoscopy (VL) configured with a Macintosh #4 non-hyperangulated blade. RESULTS: A total of 5137 RSI patients over 24 months were included. Overall intubation success was 97%. A CL III/IV laryngoscopic view was reported in 25% of DL attempts and 15% of VL attempts. Each of the HEAVEN criteria and total number of HEAVEN criteria were associated with both CL III/IV laryngoscopic view and failure to intubate on the first attempt with and without oxygen desaturation for both DL and VL. These associations persisted after adjustment for multiple co-variables including the other HEAVEN criteria. CONCLUSION: The HEAVEN criteria may be useful to predict laryngoscopic view and intubation performance for DL and VL during emergency RSI.

Vital sign patterns before shock-related cardiopulmonary arrest.

OBJECTIVE: Traditional vital sign thresholds reflect an increased risk of mortality, which may occur hours, days, or weeks following illness/injury, limiting immediate clinical significance to guide rescue therapy to avoid arrest. Our objective is to explore vital sign patterns prior to arrest due to shock. DESIGN: This retrospective observational analysis utilized physiological data from adult helicopter patients suffering provider-witnessed arrest. Pre-arrest values for systolic blood pressure (SBP), mean arterial pressure (MAP), heart rate (HR), shock index, and end-tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO2) were modeled against time using polynomial linear regression. The "terminal inflection point" beyond which arrest was imminent was identified where slope equals 1.0 (shock index) or -1.0 (SBP, MAP, HR, EtCO2) and was then compared to initial values. SETTING: Air ambulance services. PATIENTS: 70 helicopter patients over age fourteen suffering cardiac arrest. RESULTS: SBP and MAP demonstrated a gentle decline followed by acceleration beyond the inflection point (SBP 80.7 mmHg, MAP 61.9 mmHg). HR demonstrated an increase followed by a terminal drop, but inflection point values fell within normal range. Shock index increased gradually from a mean of 0.9 to the inflection point of 1.1. Initial EtCO2 values declined gradually from normal (34.4 mmHg) to the inflection point (24.7 mmHg), then dropped precipitously into arrest. All inflection points occurred 2-5 min prior to arrest. CONCLUSIONS: Vital sign patterns were defined for SBP, MAP, HR, shock index, and EtCO2 with clear inflection points identified 2-5 min prior to arrest. These patterns may help guide therapy to reverse deterioration and prevent arrest.

Variation in Survival After Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest Between Emergency Medical Services Agencies.

Importance: Emergency medical services (EMS) deliver essential initial care for patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA), but the extent to which patient outcomes vary between different EMS agencies is not fully understood. Objective: To quantify variation in patient outcomes after OHCA across EMS agencies. Design, Setting, and Participants: This observational cohort study was conducted in the Resuscitation Outcomes Consortium (ROC) Epistry, a prospective multicenter OHCA registry at 10 sites in North America. Any adult with OHCA treated by an EMS from April 2011 through June 2015 was included. Data analysis occurred from May 2017 to March 2018. Exposure: Treating EMS agency. Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was survival to hospital discharge. Secondary outcomes were return of spontaneous circulation at emergency department arrival and favorable functional outcome at hospital discharge (defined as a modified Rankin scale score ≤3). Multivariable hierarchical logistic regression models were used to adjust confounders and clustering of patients within EMS agencies, and calculated median odds ratios (MORs) were used to quantify the extent of residual variation in outcomes between EMS agencies. Results: We identified 43 656 patients with OHCA treated by 112 EMS agencies. At EMS agency level, we observed large variations in survival to hospital discharge (range, 0%-28.9%; unadjusted MOR, 1.43 [95% CI, 1.34-1.54]), return of spontaneous circulation on emergency department arrival (range, 9.0%-57.1%; unadjusted MOR, 1.53 [95% CI, 1.43-1.65]), and favorable functional outcome (range, 0%-20.4%; unadjusted MOR, 1.54 [95% CI, 1.40-1.73]). This variation persisted despite adjustment for patient-level and EMS agency-level factors known to be associated with outcomes (adjusted MOR for survival 1.56 [95% CI 1.44-1.73]; adjusted MOR for return of spontaneous circulation at emergency department arrival, 1.50 [95% CI, 1.41-1.62]; adjusted MOR for functionally favorable survival, 1.53 [95% CI, 1.37-1.78]). After restricting analysis to those who survived more than 60 minutes after hospital arrival and including hospital treatment characteristics, the variation persisted (adjusted MOR for survival, 1.49 [95% CI, 1.36-1.69]; adjusted MOR for functionally favorable survival, 1.34 [95% CI, 1.20-1.59]). Conclusions and Relevance: We found substantial variations in patient outcomes after OHCA between a large group of EMS agencies in North America that were not explained by documented patient-level and EMS agency-level variables.

A Conceptual Framework to Reduce Inpatient Preventable Deaths.

BACKGROUND: Efforts to reduce preventable deaths in the in-hospital setting should target both cardiopulmonary arrest (CPA) prevention and optimal resuscitation. This requires consideration of a broad range of clinical issues and processes. A comprehensive, integrated system of care (SOC) that links data collection with a modular education program to reduce preventable deaths has not been defined. METHODS: This study was conducted in two urban university hospitals from 2005 to 2009. The Advanced Resuscitation Training (ART) program was implemented in 2007, incorporating hands-on resuscitative skills and in-hospital-specific training with an institutional resuscitation database. Linkage between the database and training modules occurs via the ART Matrix, which classifies all CPA events into the following etiologies: sepsis, hemorrhage, pulmonary embolus, heart failure, tachyarrhythmias, bradyarrhythmias, acute respiratory distress syndrome, non-intubated pulmonary disease, obstructive apnea, traumatic brain injury, ischemic brain injury, and intracranial mass lesions. This taxonomy was validated using descriptive statistics, before-and-after analysis evaluating CPA incidence, and multivariate logistic regression to predict CPA survival. RESULTS: A total of 336 inpatients suffered a cardiopulmonary arrest during the study period-187 in the pre-ART period and 149 in the post-ART period. The vast majority of CPA events were categorized using the ART Matrix with high inter-observer reliability. As anticipated, changes in CPA incidence and survival were observed for some Matrix categories but not others following ART implementation. In addition, multivariate logistic regression revealed strong independent associations between taxonomy classifications and outcome. CONCLUSION: A novel SOC using a unique taxonomy for arrest classification appears to be effective at reducing inpatient CPA incidence and outcome.

A Continuous Quality Improvement Airway Program Results in Sustained Increases in Intubation Success.

INTRODUCTION: Airway management is a critical skill for air medical providers, including the use of rapid sequence intubation (RSI) medications. Mediocre success rates and a high incidence of complications has challenged air medical providers to improve training and performance improvement efforts to improve clinical performance. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this research was to describe the experience with a novel, integrated advanced airway management program across a large air medical company and explore the impact of the program on improvement in RSI success. METHODS: The Helicopter Advanced Resuscitation Training (HeART) program was implemented across 160 bases in 2015. The HeART program includes a novel conceptual framework based on thorough understanding of physiology, critical thinking using a novel algorithm, difficult airway predictive tools, training in the optimal use of specific airway techniques and devices, and integrated performance improvement efforts to address opportunities for improvement. The C-MAC video/direct laryngoscope and high-fidelity human patient simulation laboratories were implemented during the study period. Chi-square test for trend was used to evaluate for improvements in airway management and RSI success (overall intubation success, first-attempt success, first-attempt success without desaturation) over the 25-month study period following HeART implementation. RESULTS: A total of 5,132 patients underwent RSI during the study period. Improvements in first-attempt intubation success (85% to 95%, p < 0.01) and first-attempt success without desaturation (84% to 94%, p < 0.01) were observed. Overall intubation success increased from 95% to 99% over the study period, but the trend was not statistically significant (p = 0.311). CONCLUSIONS: An integrated advanced airway management program was successful in improving RSI intubation performance in a large air medical company.

HEAVEN Criteria: Derivation of a New Difficult Airway Prediction Tool.

OBJECTIVE: Airway management is vitally important in the management of critically ill and injured patients. Current tools to predict the difficult airway have limited application in the emergency airway situation. The aim of this study was to derive a novel difficult airway prediction tool for emergency intubation. METHODS: A retrospective descriptive analysis was performed in a population of air medical rapid sequence intubation patients requiring more than 1 attempt. The Delphi technique was used to classify the etiology for airway failure as reported by providers as part of a performance improvement database. Etiologies were organized into 6 categories, and an acronym was derived for ease of recall. RESULTS: A total of 504 patients were screened, with 63 (12%) patients identified in whom the initial intubation attempt was unsuccessful. All 63 patients (100%) were placed into 1 or more categories (HEAVEN criteria = Hypoxemia, Extremes of size, Anatomic challenges, Vomit/blood/fluid, Exsanguination/anemia, and Neck mobility issues). The database was relatively modest in size, and many patients had more than 1 criterion present, limiting our ability to perform prevalence calculations. CONCLUSION: The HEAVEN criteria represent a set of difficult airway predictors that may be applied prospectively by emergency airway personnel, facilitating airway decision making. These criteria should be validated prospectively.

Frequency and survival pattern of in-hospital cardiac arrests: The impacts of etiology and timing.

OBJECTIVE: Define the frequency and survival pattern of cardiac arrests in relation to the hospital day of event and etiology of arrest. SUBJECT AND METHODS: Retrospective cohort study of adult in-hospital cardiac arrests between July 1, 2005, and June 30, 2013, that were classified by etiology of deterioration. Arrests were divided based on hospital day (HD) of event (HD1, HD2-7, HD>7 days), and analysis of frequency was performed. The primary outcome of survival to discharge and secondary outcomes of return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) and favorable neurological outcomes were compared using multivariable logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: A total of 627 cases were included, 193 (30.8%) cases in group HD1, 206 (32.9%) in HD2-7, and 228 (36.4%) in HD>7. Etiology of arrest demonstrated variability across the groups (p<0.001). Arrests due to ventilation issues increased in frequency with longer hospitalization (p<0.001) while arrests due to dysrhythmia had the opposite trend (p=0.014). Rates of survival to discharge (p=0.038) and favorable neurological outcomes (p=0.002) were lower with increasing hospital days while ROSC was not different among the groups (p=0.183). Survival was highest for HD1 (HD1: 38.9% [95% CI, 32.0-45.7%], p=0.002 vs HD2-7: 34.0% [95% CI, 27.5-40.4%], p<0.001 vs HD>7: 27.2% [95% CI, 21.4-33.0%], p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The etiology of cardiac arrests varies in frequency as length of hospitalization increases. Survival rates and favorable neurological outcomes are lower for in-hospital arrests occurring later in the hospitalization, even when adjusted for age, sex, and location of event. Understanding these issues may help with focusing therapies and accurate prognostication.

Initial end-tidal carbon dioxide as a prognostic indicator for inpatient PEA arrest.

AIM: Investigate the relationship of initial PetCO2 values of patients during inpatient pulseless electrical activity (PEA) cardiopulmonary arrest with return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) and survival to discharge. METHODS: This study was performed in two urban, academic inpatient hospitals. Patients were enrolled from July 2009 to July 2013. A comprehensive database of all inpatient resuscitative events is maintained at these institutions, including demographic, clinical, and outcomes data. Arrests are stratified by primary etiology of arrest using a priori criteria. Inpatients with PEA arrest for whom recorded PetCO2 was available were included in the analysis. Capnography data obtained after ROSC and/or more than 10 min after initiation of CPR were excluded. Multivariable logistic regression was used to explore the association between initial PetCO2 >20 mmHg and both ROSC and survival-to-discharge. RESULTS: A total of 50 patients with PEA arrest and pre-ROSC capnography were analyzed. CPR continued an average of 11.8 min after initial PetCO2 was recorded confirming absence of ROSC at time of measurement. Initial PetCO2 was higher in patients with versus without eventual ROSC (25.3 ± 14.4 mmHg versus 13.4 ± 6.9 mmHg, P = 0.003). After adjusting for age, gender, and arrest location (ICU versus non-ICU), initial PetCO2 >20 mmHg was associated with increased likelihood of ROSC (adjusted OR 4.8, 95% CI 1.2-19.2, P = 0.028). Initial PetCO2 was not significantly associated with survival-to-discharge (P = 0.251). CONCLUSIONS: Initial PetCO2 >20 mmHg during CPR was associated with ROSC but not survival-to-discharge among inpatient PEA arrest victims. This analysis is limited by relatively small sample size.