Decreased expression of genes associated with memory and x-linked mental retardation in boys with non-syndromic cryptorchidism and high infertility risk.

An elevated odds ratio for low IQ has been found for cryptorchid boys. Furthermore, poor school performance has been observed in cryptorchid boys with impaired mini-puberty. Gene expression analysis, qPCR and immunohistology were performed on testicular biopsies from 7 boys who underwent orchiopexy and had testicular histology typical of a high risk of infertility (HIR). The results were compared with 12 biopsies from cryptorchid boys with a low risk for developing infertility. The following genes associated with mental retardation were identically expressed: GDI1, OPHN1, PAK3, ARHGEF6, IL1RAPL, ACSL4, MECP2, RPS6KA3, ARX, and ATRX. However, boys in the HIR group had low or no expression of EGR4, FMR2 (AFF2) and VCX3A. In conclusion, impaired expression of genes known to encode proteins involved in signaling pathways that regulate cytoskeletal organization, synaptic vesicle transport and the establishment of connections between neuronal cells may contribute to reduced intellectual and cognitive functioning in infertile cryptorchid males.

Genome-wide identification of Sox8-, and Sox9-dependent genes during early post-natal testis development in the mouse.

The SOX8 and SOX9 transcription factors are involved in, among others, sex differentiation, male gonad development and adult maintenance of spermatogenesis. Sox8(-/-) mice lacking Sox9 in Sertoli cells fail to form testis cords and cannot establish spermatogenesis. Although genetic and histological data show an important role for these transcription factors in regulating spermatogenesis, it is not clear which genes depend upon them at a genome-wide level. To identify transcripts that respond to the absence of Sox8 in all cells and Sox9 in Sertoli cells we measured mRNA concentrations in testicular samples from mice at 0, 6 and 18 days post-partum. In total, 621 and 629 transcripts were found at decreased or increased levels, respectively, at different time points in the mutant as compared to the control samples. These mRNAs were categorized as preferentially expressed in Sertoli cells or germ cells using data obtained with male and female gonad samples and enriched testicular cell populations. Five candidate genes were validated at the protein level. Furthermore, we identified putative direct SOX8 and SOX9 target genes by integrating predicted SOX-binding sites present in potential regulatory regions upstream of the transcription start site. Finally, we used protein network data to gain insight into the effects on regulatory interactions that occur when Sox8 and Sox9 are absent in developing Sertoli cells. The integration of testicular samples with enriched Sertoli cells, germ cells and female gonads enabled us to broadly distinguish transcripts directly affected in Sertoli cells from others that respond to secondary events in testicular cell types. Thus, combined RNA profiling signals, motif predictions and network data identified putative SOX8/SOX9 target genes in Sertoli cells and yielded insight into regulatory interactions that depend upon these transcription factors. In addition, our results will facilitate the interpretation of genome-wide in vivo SOX8 and SOX9 DNA binding data.

A genome-wide survey and functional brain imaging study identify CTNNBL1 as a memory-related gene.

Unbiased genome-wide screens combined with imaging data on brain function may identify novel molecular pathways related to human cognition. Here we performed a dense genome-wide screen to identify episodic memory-related gene variants. A genomic locus encoding the brain-expressed beta-catenin-like protein 1 (CTNNBL1) was significantly (P=7 × 10(-8)) associated with verbal memory performance in a cognitively healthy cohort from Switzerland (n=1073) and was replicated in a second cohort from Serbia (n=524; P=0.003). Gene expression studies showed CTNNBL1 genotype-dependent differences in beta-catenin-like protein 1 mRNA levels in the human cortex. Functional magnetic resonance imaging in 322 subjects detected CTNNBL1 genotype-dependent differences in memory-related brain activations. Converging evidence from independent experiments and different methodological approaches suggests a role for CTNNBL1 in human memory.

Testicular gene expression in cryptorchid boys at risk of azoospermia.

Despite timely and successful surgery, 32% of patients with bilateral and 10% with unilateral cryptorchidism will develop azoospermia. Cryptorchid boys at risk of azoospermia display a typical testicular histology of impaired mini-puberty at the time of the orchidopexy. During mini-puberty increased gonadotropin and testosterone secretion stimulate transformation of gonocytes into Ad spermatogonia. In the azoospermia risk group this transformation is to a great extent impaired. This study aimed to analyze data on whole genome expression signatures of undescended testes at risk of developing azoospermia. Twenty-three testicular biopsies from 22 boys were analyzed (19 testes from 18 boys with cryptorchidism and 4 contralateral descended testes from patients with testicular agenesis). Expression profiling identified 483 genes not or under-expressed in the azoospermia risk group compared with the control and low risk for azoospermia (LAZR) groups. Annotated loci were associated with spermatogenesis. Other significant genes were cellular defense response genes and hormone-controlled loci involved in spermatogenesis. Some genes transcribed in normal adult meiotic and post-meiotic germ cells are activated in healthy juvenile Ad spermatogonia. Thus, molecular events initiating the testicular expression program at the onset of puberty and maintaining it during adulthood occur very early in prepubertal testes. This molecular event is to a great extent impaired in the high risk for azoospermia (HAZR) group lacking Ad spermatogonia (stem cells for spermatozoa) indicating impaired mini-puberty.

A genome-wide survey of human short-term memory.

Recent advances in the development of high-throughput genotyping platforms allow for the unbiased identification of genes and genomic sequences related to heritable traits. In this study, we analyzed human short-term memory, which refers to the ability to remember information over a brief period of time and which has been found disturbed in many neuropsychiatric conditions, including schizophrenia and depression. We performed a genome-wide survey at 909 622 polymorphic loci and report six genetic variations significantly associated with human short-term memory performance after genome-wide correction for multiple comparisons. A polymorphism within SCN1A (encoding the α subunit of the type I voltage-gated sodium channel) was replicated in three independent populations of 1699 individuals. Functional magnetic resonance imaging during an n-back working memory task detected SCN1A allele-dependent activation differences in brain regions typically involved in working memory processes. These results suggest an important role for SCN1A in human short-term memory.

Deletion in Xp22.11: PTCHD1 is a candidate gene for X-linked intellectual disability with or without autism.

Submicroscopic chromosomal anomalies play an important role in the aetiology of intellectual disability (ID) and have been shown to account for up to 10% of non-syndromic forms. We present a family with two affected boys compatible with X-linked inheritance of a phenotype of severe neurodevelopmental disorder co-segregating with a deletion in Xp22.11 exclusively containing the PTCHD1 gene. Although the exact function of this gene is unknown to date, the structural overlap of its encoded patched domain-containing protein 1, the transmembrane protein involved in the sonic hedgehog pathway, and its expression in human cortex and cerebellum as well as in mice and drosophila brain suggests a causative role of its nullisomy in the developmental phenotype of our family. Our findings support the recent notions that PTCHD1 may play a role in X-linked intellectual disability (XLID) and autism disorders.

Deficient expression of genes involved in the endogenous defense system against transposons in cryptorchid boys with impaired mini-puberty.

Mini-puberty is the period between 30 and 80 days after birth when testosterone and gonadotropin surges occur in male infants to induce the transformation of gonocytes into adult/dark spermatogonia. Cryptorchid boys with impaired mini-puberty develop infertility despite timely and successful surgical treatment. The decreased germ cell count found in this group of boys could be the result of uncontrolled transposon activity inducing genomic instability and germ cell death. A genome-wide analysis of 18 cryptorchid and 4 control testes was performed with Affymetrix chips. We found that 5 of 8 genes that are important for transposon silencing were not expressed in the high azoospermia risk group of cryptorchid boys but were expressed in the low azoospermia risk and control groups. Two genes, CBX3 and DNMT1, were equally expressed in all 3 groups. Impaired expression of the DDX4, MAEL,MOV10L1, PIWIL2, PIWIL4, and TDRD9 genes in the group of cryptorchid boys at high risk of infertility indicates that gene instability induced by impaired expression of transposon silencing genes contribute to the development of azoospermia. Intact mini-puberty appears to be essential for the development of the endogenous defense system mediated by transposon silencing.

Decreased expression of FGFR1, SOS1, RAF1 genes in cryptorchidism.

BACKGROUND: In recent years, several genes were found to be involved in the process of epididymo-testicular descent, the most frequently cited ones include INSL3, HOXA10, GNRHR, and KAL1. In this study, we analyzed the differences in gene expression profiles between cryptorchid and descended testes. In particular, we analyzed expression of all recently published genes known to be associated with undescended testis. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Twenty-two testicular biopsies from 18 boys were analyzed. We analyzed gene expression in 16 cryptorchid and 6 descended testes using Affymetrix Human Genome U133 Plus 2.0 GeneChips, and validated the results with qPCR. RESULTS: 3,688 transcripts were differentially expressed with an adjusted p value of <0.05 and a change of at least 1.5-fold. The list contained 1,866 downregulated and 1,822 upregulated transcripts in the cryptorchid testes. A novel observation in our study was that the fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 gene (FGFR1) and its mediators SOS1 and RAF1 were expressed less in undescended testes. CONCLUSION: Based on our results, it is possible that a subtle dysfunction (expression) of the FGFR1, SOS1 and RAF1 genes is involved in the development of the most common male reproductive tract disorder - unilateral or bilateral cryptorchidism.

EGR4 is a master gene responsible for fertility in cryptorchidism.

The purpose of early medical or surgical treatment of boys with undescended testes is to prevent the development of infertility. However, early and successful surgery cannot prevent infertility in cryptorchid boys who lack type A dark (Ad) spermatogonia. The aim of this study was to compare the gene expression pattern of patients with completed transformation of gonocytes into Ad spermatogonia, associated with low infertility risk, with patients that had failed to undergo this process and had a high infertility risk. Genes expressed in the 16 cryptorchid testes were estimated using Affymetrix whole-genome microarray and compared to the expression profiles from four contralateral gonads of boys with unilateral testicular agenesis. Whole-genome expression profiling showed that boys in the high infertility risk group according to testicular histology, showed decreased or lack of expression of most of the genes essential for hypothalamo-pituitary-testicular axis function relative to low or intermediate risk group as well as controls. In particular, EGR4, which is involved in regulating the secretion of luteinizing hormone, was virtually not expressed. Thus, we found multiple differences in gene expression between the high and low infertility risk groups, confirming the importance of an intact hypothalamo-pituitary testicular axis and EGR4 in fertility development.