Desmosomal hyper-adhesion affects direct inhibition of desmoglein interactions in pemphigus.

During differentiation, keratinocytes acquire a strong, hyper-adhesive state, where desmosomal cadherins interact Ca2+-independently. Previous data indicate that hyper-adhesion protects keratinocytes from pemphigus vulgaris autoantibody (PV-IgG)-induced loss of intercellular adhesion although the underlying mechanism remains to be elucidated. Thus, we here investigated the effect of hyper-adhesion on PV-IgG-induced direct inhibition of desmoglein (Dsg) 3 interactions by atomic force microscopy. Hyper-adhesion abolished loss of intercellular adhesion and corresponding morphological changes of all pathogenic antibodies used. Pemphigus autoantibodies putatively targeting several parts of the Dsg3 extracellular domain (ECD) and 2G4, targeting a membrane-proximal domain of Dsg3, induced direct inhibition of Dsg3 interactions only in non-hyper-adhesive keratinocytes. In contrast, AK23, targeting the N-terminal ECD1 of Dsg3, caused direct inhibition under both adhesive states. However, antibody binding to desmosomal cadherins was not different between the distinct pathogenic antibodies used and was not changed during acquisition of hyper-adhesion. Additionally, heterophilic Dsc3-Dsg3 and Dsg2-Dsg3 interactions did not cause reduced susceptibility to direct inhibition under hyper-adhesive condition in wt keratinocytes. Taken together, the data suggest that hyper-adhesion reduces susceptibility to autoantibody-induced direct inhibition in dependency on autoantibody-targeted ECD but also demonstrate that further mechanisms are required for the protective effect of desmosomal hyper-adhesion in PV.

Type 2 T-Cell Responses against Distinct Epitopes of the Desmoglein 3 Ectodomain in Pemphigus Vulgaris.

Pemphigus vulgaris (PV) is an autoimmune blistering disorder of the skin and/or mucous membranes caused by IgG autoantibodies that predominantly target two transmembrane desmosomal cadherins: desmoglein (DSG)1 and DSG3. DSG-specific T cells play a central role in PV pathogenesis because they provide help to autoreactive B cells for autoantibody production. In this study, we characterized DSG3-specific peripheral T cells in a cohort of 52 patients with PV and 41 healthy controls with regard to cytokine profile and epitope specificity. By ELISpot analysis, type 2 T cells reactive with the DSG3 ectodomain were significantly increased in patients with PV compared with those in healthy controls. By dextramer analysis, CD4+ T cells specific for an epitope within the extracellular domain of DSG3, DSG3(206-220), were found at significantly higher frequencies in patients with PV than in HLA-matched healthy controls. T-cell recognition of two distinct DSG3 epitopes, that is, DSG3(206-220) and DSG3(378-392), correlated significantly, suggesting a synergistic effect in B-cell help. Immunization of HLA-DRB1∗04:02-transgenic mice with PV with the same set of DSG3 peptides induced pathogenic DSG3-specific IgG antibodies, which induced loss of keratinocyte adhesion in vitro. Thus, DSG3 peptide-specific T cells are of particular interest as surrogate markers of disease activity and potential therapeutic targets in PV.

Pemphigus and pemphigoids: Clinical presentation, diagnosis and therapy.

Pemphigus and pemphigoid are two potentially life-threatening groups of autoimmune diseases, characterized by autoantibodies targeting structural components of desmosomes or hemidesmosomes, respectively. Affected patients typically show itchy/painful plaques or blistering skin lesions and/or impairing mucosal blistering and erosions, which may strongly impact their quality of life. Since the milestone work of Walter Lever in 1953, who differentiated these two groups of diseases by histopathological analysis of the level of antibody-mediated skin cleavage, enormous progresses occurred. Achievements made in laboratory diagnostics now allow to identify antigen specific structural proteins of the skin that are targeted by pathogenic autoantibodies. These progresses were accompanied by an increased understanding of the pathogenesis of these diseases thanks to the establishment of animal models reproducing disease and on studies on skin and blood of affected individuals, which have been leading to novel and disease-specific treatments. Yet, given their phenotypical overlap with more common dermatological diseases, correct diagnosis and appropriate treatment are often delayed, in some cases leading to irreversible sequelae, including organ dysfunction (i.e., loss of vision in mucous membrane pemphigoid). Here, we provide a concise overview of the clinical appearance, diagnosis and therapeutic management of pemphigus and pemphigoid diseases.

Skin-infiltrating T cells display distinct inflammatory signatures in lichen planus, bullous pemphigoid and pemphigus vulgaris.

Introduction: We here thought to dissect the inflammatory signature in lesions of three skin disorders, which show a common adaptive immune response against autoantigens of the skin but are characterized by diverging clinical phenotypes. Pemphigus vulgaris (PV) and bullous pemphigoid (BP) are type-2-dependent, IgG autoantibody-driven blistering disorders of mucous membranes and skin, which target desmoglein (Dsg)3 and bullous pemphigoid (BP)180, respectively. In contrast, lichen planus (LP) is a common chronic inflammatory disease of the skin and mucous membranes with a pronounced dermal T cell infiltrate. We previously identified peripheral type 1 and 17 T cell responses against Dsg3 and BP180 in a cohort of LP patients strongly suggesting that the underlying inflammatory T cell signature may drive the evolving phenotype. Methods: Paraffin-embedded skin biopsies from well-characterized patients with LP (n=31), BP (n=19), PV (n=9), and pemphigus foliaceus (PF) (n=2) were analysed. Areas with the most prominent inflammatory infiltrate were excised with punch biopsies and tissue microarrays (TMA) containing multiple biopsies were created. Using multicolor immunofluorescence, the inflammatory infiltrate was stained with antibodies against multiple cellular markers, i. e. CD3ϵ, CD4, CD15, TCR-δ, the cytokine IL-17A, and the transcription factors, T-bet and GATA-3. Results: In LP, there was a higher number of CD4+ T cells expressing T-bet compared to GATA-3. In contrast, CD4+ T cells in PV and BP skin lesions more frequently expressed GATA-3 than T-bet. IL-17A+ cells and IL-17A+ T cells were found to a similar extent in all the three disorders. IL-17A+ granulocytes were more predominant in BP than in LP or PV. Of note, the majority of IL-17A+ cells in LP were neither T cells nor granulocytes. Discussion: Our findings in inflammatory skin infiltrates clearly show a predominant type 1 signature in LP in contrast to a preponderance of type 2 T cells in PV and BP. In contrast to LP, granulocytes and to a much lesser extent CD3+ T cells were a cellular source of IL-17A in BP and PV. These data strongly suggest that different inflammatory cell signatures drive evolving clinically diverse phenotypes of LP, PV and BP despite common target antigens of the skin.

Dermatomyositis: a comprehensive review of clinical manifestations, serological features, and therapeutic approaches.

Dermatomyositis (DM) is an autoimmune disorder, which belongs to a group of rare autoimmune dermatoses characterized by different skin features and variable muscle involvement. We recognize four main variants of DM: classic DM, clinically amyopathic DM, paraneoplastic DM, and juvenile DM. Clinically, patients show several skin features, but heliotrope rash, and violaceous papules located at the interphalangeal or metacarpophalangeal joints (Gottron's papules) are the most frequently observed. Together with skin features, patients show muscle involvement, most commonly with symmetrical weakness of the proximal muscles. DM belongs to the facultative paraneoplastic dermatoses and a wide range of solid or hematologic malignancies can be detected in DM patients. Serologically, a wide range of autoantibodies can be detected in patients with DM. Indeed, distinct serotypes can be related to specific phenotypes with specific clinical features, carrying a different risk for systemic involvement and for malignancies. Systemic corticosteroids are still considered the first-line approach, but several steroid-sparing agents, such as methotrexate, azathioprine or mycophenolate mofetil, have been reported as effective in treating DM. Furthermore, new class of drugs, such as monoclonal antibodies, purified immunoglobulins or Janus kinase inhibitors are becoming more relevant in the clinical practice or are currently under investigation. In this work, we aim to offer a clinical overview of the diagnostic workout, the characteristics of DM variants, the role of autoantibodies in DM, and the management of this life-threatening systemic disorder.

Autoimmune skin disorders and SARS-CoV-2 vaccination - a meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, which is the cause of COVID-19 disease in infected patients, has led to an ongoing worldwide pandemic. Although SARS-CoV-2 vaccination had a dramatic positive effect on the course of COVID-19, there has been increasing evidence of adverse effects after SARS-CoV-2 vaccination. This meta-analysis highlights the association between SARS-CoV-2 vaccination and de novo induction or aggravation of inflammatory and autoimmune skin diseases. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A systematic meta-analysis of the literature on new onset or worsening of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases after SARS-CoV-2 vaccination was performed according to the PRISMA guidelines. The search strategy included following terms: "COVID-19/SARS-CoV-2 vaccine bullous pemphigoid/pemphigus vulgaris/systemic lupus erythematosus/dermatomyositis/lichen planus/leukocytoclastic vasculitis." Moreover, we describe representative cases from our dermatology department. RESULTS: The database-search in MEDLINE identified 31 publications on bullous pemphigoid, 24 on pemphigus vulgaris, 65 on systemic lupus erythematosus, nine on dermatomyositis, 30 on lichen planus, and 37 on leukocytoclastic vasculitis until June 30th, 2022. Severity and response to treatment varied among the described cases. CONCLUSIONS: Our meta-analysis highlights a link between SARS-CoV-2 vaccination and new onset or worsening of inflammatory and autoimmune skin diseases. Moreover, the extent of disease exacerbation has been exemplified by cases from our dermatological department.

S2k guidelines on the management of paraneoplastic pemphigus/paraneoplastic autoimmune multiorgan syndrome initiated by the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology (EADV).

BACKGROUND: Paraneoplastic pemphigus (PNP), also called paraneoplastic autoimmune multiorgan syndrome (PAMS), is a rare autoimmune disease with mucocutaneous and multi-organ involvement. PNP/PAMS is typically associated with lymphoproliferative or haematological malignancies, and less frequently with solid malignancies. The mortality rate of PNP/PAMS is elevated owing to the increased risk of severe infections and disease-associated complications, such as bronchiolitis obliterans. OBJECTIVES: These guidelines summarize evidence-based and expert-based recommendations (S2k level) for the clinical characterization, diagnosis and management of PNP/PAMS. They have been initiated by the Task Force Autoimmune Blistering Diseases of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology with the contribution of physicians from all relevant disciplines. The degree of consent among all task force members was included. RESULTS: Chronic severe mucositis and polymorphic skin lesions are clue clinical characteristics of PNP/PAMS. A complete assessment of the patient with suspected PNP/PAMS, requiring histopathological study and immunopathological investigations, including direct and indirect immunofluorescence, ELISA and, where available, immunoblotting/immunoprecipitation, is recommended to achieve a diagnosis of PNP/PAMS. Detection of anti-envoplakin antibodies and/or circulating antibodies binding to the rat bladder epithelium at indirect immunofluorescence is the most specific tool for the diagnosis of PNP/PAMS in a patient with compatible clinical and anamnestic features. Treatment of PNP/PAMS is highly challenging. Systemic steroids up to 1.5 mg/kg/day are recommended as first-line option. Rituximab is also recommended in patients with PNP/PAMS secondary to lymphoproliferative conditions but might also be considered in cases of PNP/PAMS associated with solid tumours. A multidisciplinary approach involving pneumologists, ophthalmologists and onco-haematologists is recommended for optimal management of the patients. CONCLUSIONS: These are the first European guidelines for the diagnosis and management of PNP/PAMS. Diagnostic criteria and therapeutic recommendations will require further validation by prospective studies.

The cytokine milieu of bullous pemphigoid: Current and novel therapeutic targets.

Bullous pemphigoid (BP) is the most common autoimmune bullous disease, characterized by severe pruritus and skin blistering. The loss of tolerance against Collagen XVII, also referred to as BP180, is the main pathogenic event of BP, leading to production of IgG autoantibodies which mainly target the juxtamembranous extracellular non-collagenous 16th A (NC16A) domain of BP180. A complex inflammatory network is activated upon autoantibody binding to the basement membrane zone; this inflammatory loop involves the complement cascade and the release of several inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and proteases from keratinocytes, lymphocytes, mast cells and granulocytes. Collectively, these events disrupt the integrity of the dermal-epidermal junction, leading to subepidermal blistering. Recent advances have led to identify novel therapeutic targets for BP, whose management is mainly based on the long-term use of topical and systemic corticosteroids. As an example, targeting type-2 T-helper cell-associated cytokines, such as Interleukin-4 and interleukin-13 has shown meaningful clinical efficacy in case series and studies; targeting IL-17 and IL-23 has also been tried, owing to an important role of these cytokines in the chronic maintenance phase of BP. In this review article, we discuss the complex cytokine milieu that characterized BP inflammation, highlighting molecules, which are currently investigated as present and future therapeutic targets for this life-threatening disease.

Case report: Detection of anti-bullous pemphigoid antigen 180 antibodies in a patient with Behçet's disease.

Behçet's disease (BD) is a systemic inflammatory disease of unknown etiology. BD is characterized by relapsing oral and genital ulcers, several different cutaneous features, relapsing bilateral uveitis, and involvement of internal organs, showing vascular, gastrointestinal, and neurological manifestations. Serologically, BD is not characterized by disease-specific autoantibodies. In fact, only laboratory markers of inflammation, such as C-reactive protein, may be increased in association with increased disease activity. Bullous pemphigoid (BP) is an autoimmune disease characterized mainly by tense blisters and urticaria-like plaques on the skin. In addition, BP can involve oral mucosa in up to 20% of patients. Patients with BP show serum IgG autoantibodies against BP antigen 180 (BP180) and/or BP antigen 230 (BP230). Tissue-bound autoantibodies can be visualized as linear IgG staining along the basement membrane by direct immunofluorescence microscopy. In this report, we first described a young patient with BD who showed IgG autoantibodies against BP180 without developing blisters or urticaria-like plaques.

S2k Guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of mucous membrane pemphigoid.

Mucous membrane pemphigoid (MMP) is a pemphigoid disease with predominant mucous membrane involvement. It mainly affects the mucous membranes of the mouth, eyes, nose and pharynx, but also the larynx, trachea, esophagus, genital and perianal regions. The manifestation of the disease covers a wide spectrum from gingival erythema and single oral lesions to severe tracheal strictures that obstruct breathing and conjunctival scarring with marked visual impairment and, not infrequently, blindness. In addition to a clinical picture of predominant mucosal involvement, diagnosis is based on direct immunofluorescence of a peri-lesional biopsy and serology. The main target antigen is BP180 (collagen XVII), and reactivity with laminin 332 is associated with malignancy in approximately 25 % of MMP patients. The treatment of MMP is challenging. On the one hand, due to the involvement of different mucous membranes, good interdisciplinary cooperation is required; on the other hand, due to the rarity of the disease, no randomized controlled clinical trials are available. The aim of this guideline is to present the clinical picture, including severity and scoring systems, and to give guidance for diagnosing and treating this complex disease. In MMP, interdisciplinary cooperation plays an essential role as well as the prompt diagnosis and initiation of adequate therapy in order to avoid irreversible damage to the mucous membranes with serious complications.

Detection of rare autoreactive T cell subsets in patients with pemphigus vulgaris.

Analysis of T lymphocyte proliferation and activation after antigenic or mitogenic stimulation is a vital parameter used in the diagnosis of various immuno-deficiencies and during the monitoring of treatment responses. Most applied techniques are based on the incorporation of tritiated thymidine (3H-TdR) or ELISPOT analysis, both rely on rather time-consuming/-intensive ex vivo protocols or encompass inherent drawbacks such as the inability to distinguish specific cell populations (3H-TdR, ELISPOT) or focus on a single cytokine (ELISPOT). Here we aimed at characterizing the rapid expression of intracellular CD154 (CD40L) as a marker for rare antigen-specific CD4+ T cells in pemphigus vulgaris (PV). Upon stimulation with human desmoglein (Dsg) 3, the major autoantigen in PV, the expression of CD154 was significantly increased in PV patients compared to healthy controls (HC) and correlated with anti-Dsg3 IgG titers. Patients with active disease showed higher numbers of Dsg3-reactive CD4+ T cells in CXCR5+ T follicular helper cells. In remittent PV and HC, CXCR5+CD4+ T cells remained largely unaffected by Dsg3. IL-17 and IL-21 expression were significantly induced only in CD154+CD4+ T cells from PV patients, lending themselves as potential novel treatment targets. Additionally, stimulation with immunodominant Dsg3-derived epitopes strongly induced a CD4+ T cell response via CD40-CD154 interaction similar to the human Dsg3 protein. We here established a rapid ex vivo assay allowing the detection of Dsg3-reactive CD4+ T cells from activated systemically available PBMCs, which further supports the crucial concept of antigen-specific T cells in the pathogenesis of PV.

Therapeutic strategies for oral lichen planus: State of the art and new insights.

Oral lichen planus (OLP) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the oral mucosa. Several clinical subtypes of OLP have been reported, including the reticular and erosive one. On the one hand, reticular OLP is usually asymptomatic and is characterized by white streaks surrounded by well-defined erythematous borders. On the other hand, erosive OLP shows ulcerations and erosions surrounded by erythematous mucosa. While reticular OLP is relatively easy to control, erosive OLP is extremely painful and refractory to therapies, limiting the quality of life of the patients. In addition, treating erosive OLP is extremely tricky, and a gold standard treatment has not yet been established. However, several therapeutic approaches have been reported as effective, including systemic corticosteroids, systemic retinoids, and anti-interleukin (IL)-17/anti-IL-23 drugs. Indeed, our group and other several authors reported the effectiveness of anti-IL17, anti-IL12/23, and anti-IL23 agents in refractory OLP, highlighting the urgency of clinical studies on the use of anti-IL agents in OLP patients. In this paper, we reviewed the English- and German-language literature about therapeutic strategies for treating OLP, focusing on new systemic therapies for erosive OLP.