A multiomics approach reveals evidence for phenylbutyrate as a potential treatment for combined D,L-2- hydroxyglutaric aciduria.

PURPOSE: To identify therapies for combined D, L-2-hydroxyglutaric aciduria (C-2HGA), a rare genetic disorder caused by recessive variants in the SLC25A1 gene. METHODS: Patients C-2HGA were identified and diagnosed by whole exome sequencing and biochemical genetic testing. Patient derived fibroblasts were then treated with phenylbutyrate and the functional effects assessed by metabolomics and RNA-sequencing. RESULTS: In this study, we demonstrated that C-2HGA patient derived fibroblasts exhibited impaired cellular bioenergetics. Moreover, Fibroblasts form one patient exhibited worsened cellular bioenergetics when supplemented with citrate. We hypothesized that treating patient cells with phenylbutyrate (PB), an FDA approved pharmaceutical drug that conjugates glutamine for renal excretion, would reduce mitochondrial 2-ketoglutarate, thereby leading to improved cellular bioenergetics. Metabolomic and RNA-seq analyses of PB-treated fibroblasts demonstrated a significant decrease in intracellular 2-ketoglutarate, 2-hydroxyglutarate, and in levels of mRNA coding for citrate synthase and isocitrate dehydrogenase. Consistent with the known action of PB, an increased level of phenylacetylglutamine in patient cells was consistent with the drug acting as 2-ketoglutarate sink. CONCLUSION: Our pre-clinical studies suggest that citrate supplementation has the possibility exacerbating energy metabolism in this condition. However, improvement in cellular bioenergetics suggests phenylbutyrate might have interventional utility for this rare disease.

Dietary dicarboxylic acids provide a non-storable alternative fat source that protects mice against obesity.

Dicarboxylic fatty acids are generated in the liver and kidney in a minor pathway called fatty acid ω-oxidation. The effects of consuming dicarboxylic fatty acids as an alternative source of dietary fat have not been explored. Here, we fed dodecanedioic acid, a 12-carbon dicarboxylic (DC12), to mice at 20% of daily caloric intake for nine weeks. DC12 increased metabolic rate, reduced body fat, reduced liver fat, and improved glucose tolerance. We observed DC12-specific breakdown products in liver, kidney, muscle, heart, and brain, indicating that oral DC12 escaped first-pass liver metabolism and was utilized by many tissues. In tissues expressing the "a" isoform of acyl-CoA oxidase-1 (ACOX1), a key peroxisomal fatty acid oxidation enzyme, DC12 was chain shortened to the TCA cycle intermediate succinyl-CoA. In tissues with low peroxisomal fatty acid oxidation capacity, DC12 was oxidized by mitochondria. In vitro, DC12 was catabolized even by adipose tissue and was not stored intracellularly. We conclude that DC12 and other dicarboxylic acids may be useful for combatting obesity and for treating metabolic disorders.

Does hyperphenylalaninemia induce brain glucose hypometabolism? Cerebral spinal fluid findings in treated adult phenylketonuric patients.

Despite numerous studies in human patients and animal models for phenylketonuria (PKU; OMIM#261600), the pathophysiology of PKU and the underlying causes of brain dysfunction and cognitive problems in PKU patients are not well understood. In this study, lumbar cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) was obtained immediately after blood sampling from early-treated adult PKU patients who had fasted overnight. Metabolite and amino acid concentrations in the CSF of PKU patients were compared with those of non-PKU controls. The CSF concentrations and CSF/plasma ratios for glucose and lactate were found to be below normal, similar to what has been reported for glucose transporter1 (GLUT1) deficiency patients who exhibit many of the same clinical symptoms as untreated PKU patients. CSF glucose and lactate levels were negatively correlated with CSF phenylalanine (Phe), while CSF glutamine and glutamate levels were positively correlated with CSF Phe levels. Plasma glucose levels were negatively correlated with plasma Phe concentrations in PKU subjects, which partly explains the reduced CSF glucose concentrations. Although brain glucose concentrations are unlikely to be low enough to impair brain glucose utilization, it is possible that the metabolism of Phe in the brain to produce phenyllactate, which can be transported across the blood-brain barrier to the blood, may consume glucose and/or lactate to generate the carbon backbone for glutamate. This glutamate is then converted to glutamine and carries the Phe-derived ammonia from the brain to the blood. While this mechanism remains to be tested, it may explain the correlations of CSF glutamine, glucose, and lactate concentrations with CSF Phe.

Amino acid ratio combinations as biomarkers for discriminating patients with pyruvate dehydrogenase complex deficiency from other inborn errors of metabolism.

BACKGROUND: Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex deficiency (PDCD) is a mitochondrial neurometabolic disorder of energy deficit, with incidence of about 1 in 42,000 live births annually in the USA. The median and mean ages of diagnosis of PDCD are about 12 and 31 months, respectively. PDCD is a major cause of primary lactic acidosis with concomitant elevation in blood alanine (Ala) and proline (Pro) concentrations depending on phenotypic severity. Alanine/Leucine (Ala/Leu) ≥4.0 and Proline/Leucine (Pro/Leu) ≥3.0 combination cutoff from dried blood spot specimens was used as a biomarker for early identification of neonates/infants with PDCD. Further investigations were needed to evaluate the sensitivity (SN), specificity (SP), and clinical utility of such amino acid (AA) ratio combination cutoffs in discriminating PDCD from other inborn errors of metabolism (IEM) for early identification of such patients. METHODS: We reviewed medical records of patients seen at UPMC in the past 11 years with molecularly or enzymatically confirmed diagnosis. We collected plasma AA analysis data from samples prior to initiation of therapeutic interventions such as total parenteral nutrition and/or ketogenic diet. Conditions evaluated included organic acidemias, primary mitochondrial disorders (MtDs), fatty acid oxidation disorders (FAOD), other IEMs on current newborn screening panels, congenital cardiac great vessel anomalies, renal tubular acidosis, and non-IEMs. The utility of specific AA ratio combinations as biomarkers were evaluated using receiver operating characteristic curves, correlation analysis, principal component analysis, and cutoff SN, SP, and positive predictive value determined from 201 subjects with broad age range. RESULTS: Alanine/Lysine (Ala/Lys) and Ala/Leu as well as (Ala + Pro)/(Leu + Lys) and Ala/Leu ratio combinations effectively discriminated subjects with PDCD from those with other MtDs and IEMs on current newborn screening panels. Specific AA ratio combinations were significantly more sensitive in identifying PDCD than Ala alone or combinations of Ala and/or Pro in the evaluated cohort of subjects. Ala/Lys ≥3.0 and Ala/Leu ≥5.0 as well as (Ala + Pro)/(Leu + Lys) ≥2.5 and Ala/Leu ≥5.0 combination cutoffs identified patients with PDCD with 100% SN and ~85% SP. CONCLUSIONS: With the best predictor of survival and positive cognitive outcome in PDCD being age of diagnosis, PDCD patients would benefit from use of such highly SN and SP AA ratio combination cutoffs as biomarkers for early identification of at-risk newborns, infants, and children, for early intervention(s) with known and/or novel therapeutics for this disorder.

Epithelial-like transport of mineral distinguishes bone formation from other connective tissues.

We review unique properties of bone formation including current understanding of mechanisms of bone mineral transport. We focus on formation only; mechanism of bone degradation is a separate topic not considered. Bone matrix is compared to other connective tissues composed mainly of the same proteins, but without the specialized mechanism for continuous transport and deposition of mineral. Indeed other connective tissues add mechanisms to prevent mineral formation. We start with the epithelial-like surfaces that mediate transport of phosphate to be incorporated into hydroxyapatite in bone, or in its ancestral tissue, the tooth. These include several phosphate producing or phosphate transport-related proteins with special expression in large quantities in bone, particularly in the bone-surface osteoblasts. In all connective tissues including bone, the proteins that constitute the protein matrix are mainly type I collagen and γ-carboxylate-containing small proteins in similar molar quantities to collagen. Specialized proteins that regulate connective tissue structure and formation are surprisingly similar in mineralized and non-mineralized tissues. While serum calcium and phosphate are adequate to precipitate mineral, specialized mechanisms normally prevent mineral formation except in bone, where continuous transport and deposition of mineral occurs.

Creatine energy substrate increases bone density in the Pahenu2 classical PKU mouse in the context of phenylalanine restriction.

Pathophysiology of osteopenia in phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH) deficient phenylketonuria (PKU) is poorly characterized. The Pahenu2 mouse is universally osteopenic where dietary phenylalanine (Phe) management with amino acid defined chow does not improve bone density. We previously demonstrated Pahenu2 osteopenia owes to a skeletal stem cell (SSC) developmental deficit mediated by energy dysregulation and oxidative stress. This investigation demonstrates complexity of Pahenu2 SSC energy dysregulation. Creatine use by bone tissue is recognized. In vitro Pahenu2 SSCs in osteoblast differentiation respond to creatine with increased in situ alkaline phosphatase activity and increased intracellular ATP content. Animal studies applied a 60-day creatine regimen to Pahenu2 and control cohorts. Control cohorts include unaffected littermates (wt/wt), Pahenu2 receiving no intervention, and dietary Phe restricted Pahenu2. Experimental cohorts (Phe unrestricted Pahenu2, Phe restricted Pahenu2) were provided 1% creatine ad libitum in water. After 60 days, microcomputed tomography assessed bone metrics. Equivalent osteopenia occurs in Phe-restricted and untreated Pahenu2 control cohorts. In Phe unrestricted Pahenu2, creatine was without effect as bone density remained equivalent to Pahenu2 control cohorts. Alternatively, Phe-restricted Pahenu2 receiving creatine present increased bone density. We hypothesize small molecule dysregulation in untreated Pahenu2 disallows creatine utilization; therefore, osteopenia persisted. Dietary Phe restriction enables creatine utilization to enhance SSC osteoblast differentiation and improve in vivo bone density. PKU intervention singularly focused on Phe reduction enables residual disease including osteopenia and neurologic elements. Intervention concurrently addressing Phe homeostasis and energy dysregulation will improve disease elements refractory to standard of care Phe reduction mono-therapy.

A multiomics approach to understanding pathology of Combined D,L-2- Hydroxyglutaric Aciduria and phenylbutyrate as potential treatment.

Combined D, L-2-Hydroxyglutaric Aciduria (D,L-2HGA) is a rare genetic disorder caused by recessive mutations in the SLC25A1 gene that encodes the mitochondrial citrate carrier protein (CIC). SLC25A1 deficiency leads to a secondary increase in mitochondrial 2-ketoglutarate that, in turn, is reduced to neurotoxic 2-hydroxyglutarate. Clinical symptoms of Combined D,L-2HGA include neonatal encephalopathy, respiratory insufficiency and often with death in infancy. No current therapies exist, although replenishing cytosolic stores by citrate supplementation to replenish cytosolic stores has been proposed. In this study, we demonstrated that patient derived fibroblasts exhibited impaired cellular bioenergetics that were worsened with citrate supplementation. We hypothesized treating patient cells with phenylbutyrate, an FDA approved pharmaceutical drug, would reduce mitochondrial 2-ketoglutarate, leading to improved cellular bioenergetics including oxygen consumption and fatty acid oxidation. Metabolomic and RNA-seq analyses demonstrated a significant decrease in intracellular 2-ketoglutarate, 2-hydroxyglutarate, and in levels of mRNA coding for citrate synthase and isocitrate dehydrogenase. Consistent with the known action of phenylbutyrate, detected levels of phenylacetylglutamine was consistent with the drug acting as 2-ketoglutarate sink in patient cells. Our pre-clinical studies suggest citrate supplementation is unlikely to be an effective treatment of the disorder. However, cellular bioenergetics suggests phenylbutyrate may have interventional utility for this rare disease.

ITCH deficiency clinical phenotype expansion and mitochondrial dysfunction.

Autoimmune Disease, Multisystem, with Facial Dysmorphism (ADMFD) is an autosomal recessive disorder due to pathogenic variants in the ITCH gene. It is characterized by failure to thrive, dysmorphic facial features, developmental delay, and systemic autoimmunity that can manifest variably with autoimmune hepatitis, thyroiditis, and enteropathy, among other organ manifestations. It was originally described in 10 consanguineous Old Order Amish patients, and more recently in two patients of White British and Black German ethnicities. While the role of ITCH protein in apoptosis and inflammation has previously been characterized, a defect in cellular bioenergetics has not yet been reported in ITCH deficiency. Here we present a Caucasian female originally evaluated for possible mitochondrial respiratory chain deficiency, who ultimately was found to have two novel variants in ITCH with absence of ITCH protein in patient derived fibroblasts. Clinical studies of patient muscle showed mitochondrial DNA copy number of 57% compared to controls. Functional studies in skin fibroblasts revealed decreased activity of mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation and oxidative phosphorylation, and decreased overall ATP production. Our findings confirm mitochondrial energy dysfunction in a patient with ITCH deficiency offering the opportunity to assess alternative therapeutic options.

Glutamine energy substrate anaplerosis increases bone density in the Pahenu2 classical PKU mouse in the absence of phenylalanine restriction.

Osteopenia is an under-investigated clinical presentation of phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH)-deficient phenylketonuria (PKU). While osteopenia is not fully penetrant in human PKU, the Pahenu2 mouse is universally osteopenic and ideal to study the phenotype. We determined Pahenu2 mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are developmentally impaired in the osteoblast lineage. Moreover, we determined energy dysregulation and oxidative stress contribute to the osteoblast developmental deficit. The MSC preferred substrate glutamine (Gln) was applied to enhance energy homeostasis. In vitro Pahenu2 MSCs, in the context of 1200 µM Phe, respond to Gln with increased in situ alkaline phosphatase activity indicating augmented osteoblast differentiation. Oximetry applied to Pahenu2 MSCs in osteoblast differentiation show Gln energy substrate increases oxygen consumption, specifically maximum respiration and respiratory reserve. For 60 days post-weaning, Pahenu2 animals received either no intervention (standard lab chow), amino acid defined chow maintaining plasma Phe at ~200 µM, or standard lab chow where ad libitum water was a 2% Gln solution. Bone density was assessed by microcomputed tomography and bone growth assessed by dye labeling. Bone density and dye labeling in Phe-restricted Pahenu2 was indistinguishable from untreated Pahenu2. Gln energy substrate provided to Pahenu2, in the context of uncontrolled hyperphenylalaninemia, present increased bone density and dye labeling. These data provide further evidence that Pahenu2 MSCs experience a secondary energy deficit that is responsive both in vitro and in vivo to Gln energy substrate and independent of hyperphenylalaninemia. Energy support may have effect to treat human PKU osteopenia and elements of PKU neurologic disease resistant to standard of care systemic Phe reduction. Glutamine energy substrate anaplerosis increased Pahenu2 bone density and improved in vitro MSC function in the context of hyperphenylalaninemia in the classical PKU range.

Hydroxocobalamin infusion in a patient monitored for plasma free hemoglobin levels.

Hemolysis is one of the most common preanalytical concerns in the clinical laboratory. Hydroxocobalamin administration causes red pigmentation of plasma that may mimic hemolysis and may interfere with chemistry assays. A male patient in his sixties was placed on extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) as a bridge to transplantation. Daily plasma free hemoglobin measurements were ordered to monitor for adverse ECMO events. An intensely red plasma specimen was inconsistent with modestly elevated hemoglobin levels and became pink on dilution. Follow-up with providers indicated that the red plasma could be attributed to hydroxocobalamin administration. Performance of scanning spectrophotometry and assessment of a sample spiked with hydroxocobalamin indicated that the red colored hydroxocobalamin did not interfere with our 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine based methodology for free plasma hemoglobin measurement. It is important for the laboratory professionals to be aware of the possibility of interference in hemoglobin assays due to hydroxocobalamin.

Domino liver transplant from a donor with maple syrup urine disease into a recipient with phenylketonuria.

Classical phenylketonuria (PKU) presents a unique challenge for women of child-bearing age. In the context of pregnancy, poorly controlled hyperphenylalaninemia can result in a devastating constellation of outcomes for the baby referred to as the maternal PKU Syndrome. We present the case of a woman with classical PKU unable to maintain a restricted diet and refractory to pharmacological therapies. She elected to undergo a domino liver transplant, receiving an organ from a donor with classical branched chain ketoacid dehydrogenase deficiency (maple syrup urine disease). Plasma phenylalanine concentrations normalized within a few days after transplant and remained so on an unrestricted diet during the first year of follow-up. The patient reports subjective improvements in mood, energy level, and overall quality of life. In the appropriate clinical setting, liver transplant should be considered to provide metabolic stability for PKU patients, particularly women of childbearing age.

Comparative metabolomics in the Pahenu2 classical PKU mouse identifies cerebral energy pathway disruption and oxidative stress.

Classical phenylketonuria (PKU, OMIM 261600) owes to hepatic deficiency of phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH) that enzymatically converts phenylalanine (Phe) to tyrosine (Tyr). PKU neurologic phenotypes include impaired brain development, decreased myelination, early onset mental retardation, seizures, and late-onset features (neuropsychiatric, Parkinsonism). Phe over-representation is systemic; however, tissue response to hyperphenylalaninemia is not consistent. To characterize hyperphenylalaninemia tissue response, metabolomics was applied to Pahenu2 classical PKU mouse blood, liver, and brain. In blood and liver over-represented analytes were principally Phe, Phe catabolites, and Phe-related analytes (Phe-conjugates, Phe-containing dipeptides). In addition to Phe and Phe-related analytes, the metabolomic profile of Pahenu2 brain tissue evidenced oxidative stress responses and energy dysregulation. Glutathione and homocarnosine anti-oxidative responses are apparent Pahenu2 brain. Oxidative stress in Pahenu2 brain was further evidenced by increased reactive oxygen species. Pahenu2 brain presents an increased NADH/NAD ratio suggesting respiratory chain complex 1 dysfunction. Respirometry in Pahenu2 brain mitochondria functionally confirmed reduced respiratory chain activity with an attenuated response to pyruvate substrate. Glycolysis pathway analytes are over-represented in Pahenu2 brain tissue. PKU pathologies owe to liver metabolic deficiency; yet, Pahenu2 liver tissue shows neither energy disruption nor anti-oxidative response. Unique aspects of metabolomic homeostasis in PKU brain tissue along with increased reactive oxygen species and respiratory chain deficit provide insight to neurologic disease mechanisms. While some elements of assumed, long standing PKU neuropathology are enforced by metabolomic data (e.g. reduced tryptophan and serotonin representation), energy dysregulation and tissue oxidative stress expand mechanisms underlying neuropathology.

Phenylketonuria oxidative stress and energy dysregulation: Emerging pathophysiological elements provide interventional opportunity.

Phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH) deficient phenylketonuria (PKU) is rightfully considered the paradigm treatable metabolic disease. Dietary substrate restriction (i.e. phenylalanine (Phe) restriction) was applied >60 years ago and remains the primary PKU management means. The traditional model of PKU neuropathophysiology dictates blood Phe over-representation directs asymmetric blood:brain barrier amino acid transport through the LAT1 transporter with subsequent increased cerebral Phe concentration and low concentrations of tyrosine (Tyr), tryptophan (Trp), leucine (Leu), valine (Val), and isoleucine (Ile). Low Tyr and Trp concentrations generate secondary serotonergic and dopaminergic neurotransmitter paucities, widely attributed as drivers of PKU neurologic phenotypes. White matter disease, a central PKU characteristic, is ascribed to Phe-mediated tissue toxicity. Impaired cerebral protein synthesis, by reduced concentrations of non-Phe large neutral amino acids, is another cited pathological mechanism. The PKU amino acid transport model suggests Phe management should be more efficacious than is realized, as even early identified, continuously treated patients that retain therapy compliance into adulthood, demonstrate neurologic disease elements. Reduced cerebral metabolism was an early-recognized element of PKU pathology. Legacy data (late 1960's to mid-1970's) determined the Phe catabolite phenylpyruvate inhibits mitochondrial pyruvate transport. Respirometry of Pahenu2 cerebral mitochondria have attenuated respiratory chain complex 1 induction in response to pyruvate substrate, indicating reduced energy metabolism. Oxidative stress is intrinsic to PKU and Pahenu2 brain tissue presents increased reactive oxygen species. Phenylpyruvate inhibits glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase that generates reduced niacinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate the obligatory cofactor of glutathione reductase. Pahenu2 brain tissue metabolomics identified increased oxidized glutathione and glutathione disulfide. Over-represented glutathione disulfide argues for reduced glutathione reductase activity secondary to reduced NADPH. Herein, we review evidence of energy and oxidative stress involvement in PKU pathology. Data suggests energy deficit and oxidative stress are features of PKU pathophysiology, providing intervention-amenable therapeutic targets to ameliorate disease elements refractory to standard of care.

Growth and mineralization of osteoblasts from mesenchymal stem cells on microporous membranes: Epithelial-like growth with transmembrane resistance and pH gradient.

Osteoblasts in vivo form an epithelial-like layer with tight junctions between cells. Bone formation involves mineral transport into the matrix and acid transport to balance pH levels. To study the importance of the pH gradient in vitro, we used Transwell inserts composed of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) membranes with 0.4 µm pores at a density of (2 ± 0.4) x 106 pores per cm2. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) prepared from murine bone marrow were used to investigate alternative conditions whereby osteoblast differentiation would better emulate in vivo bone development. MSCs were characterized by flow cytometry with more than 90% CD44 and 75% Sca-1 labeling. Mineralization was validated with paracellular alkaline phosphatase activity, collagen birefringence, and mineral deposition confirming MSCs identity. We demonstrate that MSCs cultured and differentiated on PET inserts form an epithelial-like layer while mineralizing. Measurement of the transepithelial resistance was ∼1400 Ω•cm2 at three weeks of differentiation. The pH value of the media above and under the cells were measured while cells were in proliferation and differentiation. In mineralizing cells, a difference of 0.145 pH unit was observed between the medium above and under the cells indicating a transepithelial gradient. A significant difference in pH units was observed between the medium above and below the cells in proliferation compared to differentiation. Data on pH below membranes were confirmed by pH-dependent SNARF1 fluorescence. Control cells in proliferative medium did not form an epithelial-like layer, displayed low transepithelial resistance, and there was no significant pH gradient. By transmission electron microscopy, membrane attached osteoblasts in vitro had abundant mitochondria consistent with active transport that occurs in vivo by surface osteoblasts. In keeping with osteoblastic differentiation, scanning electron microscopy identified deposition of extracellular collagen surrounded by hydroxyapatite. This in vitro model is a major advancement in modeling bone in vivo for understanding of osteoblast bone matrix production.

A New View of Bone Loss in Phenylketonuria.

Osteopenia is common in phenylalanine hydroxylase deficient phenylketonuria (PKU). PKU is managed by limiting dietary phenylalanine. Osteopenia in PKU might reflect a therapeutic diet, with reduced bone forming materials. However, osteopenia occurs in patients who never received dietary therapy or following short-term therapy. Humans and animal studies find no correlation between bone loss, plasma hyperphenylalaninemia, bone formation, and resorption markers. Work in the Pahenu2 mouse recently showed a mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) developmental defect in the osteoblast pathway. Specifically, Pahenu2 MSCs are affected by energy dysregulation and oxidative stress. In PKU, MSCs oximetry and respirometry show mitochondrial respiratory-chain complex 1 deficit and over-representation of superoxide, producing reactive oxygen species affecting mitochondrial function. Similar mechanisms are involved in aging bone and other rare defects including alkaptonuria and homocysteinemia. Novel interventions to support energy and reduce oxidative stress may restore bone formation PKU patients, and in metabolic diseases with related mechanisms.

Phenylalanine hydroxylase deficient phenylketonuria comparative metabolomics identifies energy pathway disruption and oxidative stress.

Classical phenylketonuria (PKU, OMIM 261600) owes to hepatic deficiency of phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH) that enzymatically converts phenylalanine (Phe) to tyrosine (Tyr). PKU neurologic phenotypes include impaired brain development, decreased myelination, early onset mental retardation, seizures, and late-onset features (neuropsychiatric, Parkinsonism). PAH deficiency leads to systemic hyperphenylalaninemia; however, the impact of Phe varies between tissues. To characterize tissue response to hyperphenylalaninemia, metabolomics was applied to tissue from therapy noncompliant classical PKU patients (blood, liver), the Pahenu2 classical PKU mouse (blood, liver, brain) and the PAH deficient pig (blood, liver, brain, cerebrospinal fluid). In blood, liver, and CSF from both patients and animal models over-represented analytes were principally Phe, Phe catabolites, and Phe-related analytes (conjugates, Phe-containing dipeptides). In addition to Phe and Phe-related analytes, the metabolomic profile of PKU brain tissue (mouse, pig) evidenced oxidative stress responses and energy dysregulation. In Pahenu2 and PKU pig brain tissues, anti-oxidative response by glutathione and homocarnosine is apparent. Oxidative stress in Pahenu2 brain was further demonstrated by increased reactive oxygen species. In Pahenu2 and PKU pig brain, an increased NADH/NAD ratio suggests a respiratory chain dysfunction. Respirometry in PKU brain mitochondria (mouse, pig) functionally confirmed reduced respiratory chain activity. Glycolysis pathway analytes are over-represented in PKU brain tissue (mouse, pig). PKU pathologies owe to liver metabolic deficiency; yet, PKU liver tissue (mouse, pig, human) shows neither energy disruption nor anti-oxidative response. Unique aspects of metabolomic homeostasis in PKU brain tissue along with increased reactive oxygen species and respiratory chain deficit provide insight to neurologic disease mechanisms. While some elements of assumed, long standing PKU neuropathology are enforced by metabolomic data (e.g. reduced tryptophan and serotonin representation), energy dysregulation and tissue oxidative stress expand mechanisms underlying neuropathology.

Mesenchymal stem cell energy deficit and oxidative stress contribute to osteopenia in the Pahenu2 classical PKU mouse.

Osteopenia occurs in a subset of phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH) deficient phenylketonuria (PKU) patients. While osteopenia is not fully penetrant in patients, the Pahenu2 classical PKU mouse is universally osteopenic, making it an ideal model of the phenotype. Pahenu2 Phe management, with a Phe-fee amino acid defined diet, does not improve bone density as histomorphometry metrics remain indistinguishable from untreated animals. Previously, we demonstrated Pahenu2 mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) display impaired osteoblast differentiation. Oxidative stress is recognized in PKU patients and PKU animal models. Pahenu2 MSCs experience oxidative stress determined by intracellular superoxide over-representation. The deleterious impact of oxidative stress on mitochondria is recognized. Oximetry applied to Pahenu2 MSCs identified mitochondrial stress by increased basal respiration with concurrently reduced maximal respiration and respiratory reserve. Proton leak secondary to mitochondrial complex 1 dysfunction is a recognized superoxide source. Respirometry applied to Pahenu2 MSCs, in the course of osteoblast differentiation, identified a partial complex 1 deficit. Pahenu2 MSCs treated with the antioxidant resveratrol demonstrated increased mitochondrial mass by MitoTracker green labeling. In hyperphenylalaninemic conditions, resveratrol increased in situ alkaline phosphatase activity suggesting partial recovery of Pahenu2 MSCs osteoblast differentiation. Up-regulation of oxidative energy production is required for osteoblasts differentiation. Our data suggests impaired Pahenu2 MSC developmental competence involves an energy deficit. We posit energy support and oxidative stress reduction will enable Pahenu2 MSC differentiation in the osteoblast lineage to subsequently increase bone density.

Acquired deficiency of peroxisomal dicarboxylic acid catabolism is a metabolic vulnerability in hepatoblastoma.

Metabolic reprogramming provides transformed cells with proliferative and/or survival advantages. Capitalizing on this therapeutically, however, has been only moderately successful because of the relatively small magnitude of these differences and because cancers may further adapt their metabolism to evade metabolic pathway inhibition. Mice lacking the peroxisomal bifunctional enzyme enoyl-CoA hydratase/3-hydroxyacyl CoA dehydrogenase (Ehhadh) and supplemented with the 12-carbon fatty acid lauric acid (C12) accumulate the toxic metabolite dodecanedioic acid (DDDA), which causes acute hepatocyte necrosis and liver failure. We noted that, in a murine model of pediatric hepatoblastoma (HB) and in primary human HBs, downregulation of Ehhadh occurs in association with the suppression of mitochondrial ß- and endosomal/peroxisomal ω-fatty acid oxidation pathways. This suggested that HBs might be more susceptible than normal liver tissue to C12 dietary intervention. Indeed, HB-bearing mice provided with C12- and/or DDDA-supplemented diets survived significantly longer than those on standard diets. In addition, larger tumors developed massive necrosis following short-term DDDA administration. In some HBs, the eventual development of DDDA resistance was associated with 129 transcript differences, ∼90% of which were downregulated, and approximately two-thirds of which correlated with survival in numerous human cancers. These transcripts often encoded extracellular matrix components, suggesting that DDDA resistance arises from reduced Ehhadh uptake. Lower Ehhadh expression was also noted in murine hepatocellular carcinomas and in subsets of certain human cancers, supporting the likely generality of these results. Our results demonstrate the feasibility of C12 or DDDA dietary supplementation that is nontoxic, inexpensive, and likely compatible with more standard chemotherapies.