Subcutaneous hydromorphone hydrochloride provides antinociception with transient adverse effects in four-toed hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris).

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the efficacy and safety of hydromorphone administered SC in four-toed hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris). ANIMALS: 12 healthy adult hedgehogs. METHODS: Hedgehogs underwent 2 randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled, complete crossover studies. Hind limb withdrawal latencies in response to an acute thermal noxious stimulus were measured to evaluate the antinociceptive efficacy of hydromorphone. Baseline latencies were obtained prior to injection and collected again at 0.5, 1, 2, 4, and 6 hours following injection. Based on pilot studies, single doses of SC hydromorphone at 0.15 and 0.3 mg/kg were evaluated for efficacy in crossover trials. Safety of single (0.15 and 0.3 mg/kg) and multiple doses of hydromorphone (0.3 mg/kg, SC, q 4 h, for 3 doses) was also assessed. In addition to monitoring behavior during latency measurements, animals were evaluated for overt sedation and daily changes in food intake, body weight, and running wheel activity for 6 days after injection to evaluate for adverse effects. RESULTS: Hydromorphone at 0.15 mg/kg provided antinociception lasting < 4 hours, and 0.3 mg/kg provided antinociception lasting < 6 hours. Hydromorphone produced transient abnormal behaviors at both doses, including vocalization, chewing motions of the jaw, and paw raising. There were no statistically significant differences in body weight or running wheel activity between treatments for single or multiple doses of hydromorphone. Three doses of 0.3 mg/kg hydromorphone (q 4 h) produced a statistically significant decrease (median, -9.7%; range, -64% to 10%) in 6-day total food intake. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Subcutaneous hydromorphone (0.15 to 0.3 mg/kg) can be used for short-term antinociception with transient adverse effects in hedgehogs.

Efficacy and safety of subcutaneous methadone hydrochloride in four-toed hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris).

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the efficacy and safety of SC methadone in four-toed hedgehogs. ANIMALS: 9 to 12 healthy adult four-toed hedgehogs (7 to 9 males and 3 females). METHODS: Hedgehogs underwent 3 randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled, complete crossover studies. Hind limb withdrawal latencies in response to an acute thermal noxious stimulus were measured to evaluate the antinociceptive efficacy of methadone. Single doses of SC methadone were evaluated at 0.5 and 1 mg/kg for dose-dependent effects. Additionally, methadone (1.5 mg/kg) was administered at different concentrations to assess the effect of injection volume on antinociceptive efficacy. Finally, the safety of multiple doses of methadone (1.5 mg/kg, SC, q 2 h, for 3 doses) was also evaluated. In addition to monitoring behavior during latency measurements, animals were assessed for overt sedation. Food intake, body weight, and running wheel activity were assessed daily for 6 days following methadone administration to evaluate for adverse effects. RESULTS: Methadone at 1 and 1.5 mg/kg provided antinociception lasting < 2 hours, and injection volume had no significant effect on efficacy. Methadone at 0.5 mg/kg did not induce antinociception. Methadone produced transient abnormal behaviors in all hedgehogs, with more animals affected at the 1.5-mg/kg dose. Behaviors included periods of standing motionless, vocalization, chewing motions, and paw raising. Single- or multiple-dose administration of methadone had no significant effect on total food intake, body weight, or running wheel activity. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The results of this study provide additional information on providing analgesia to hedgehogs. Subcutaneous methadone (1 to 1.5 mg/kg) can be used for short-term antinociception in hedgehogs.

Investigation of a maxillary nerve block technique in guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus): A cadaveric study comparing two injectate volumes.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate and describe an extraoral approach to perform a maxillary nerve block in guinea pigs. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective, randomized, blinded, descriptive, cadaveric study. ANIMALS: A total of 14 adult guinea pig cadavers. METHODS: Two cadavers were used for anatomic dissection and determination of maxillary nerve block approach. A maxillary nerve block via infraorbital approach was then performed in 12 cadavers. A low volume (0.1 mL) or high volume (0.2 mL) of diluted methylene blue injectate was randomly assigned to the right or left side, with the other volume used for the contralateral side. The maxillary nerve was dissected after each injection by an investigator blinded to injectate volume. The region of dye distribution was identified, and the degree of staining assigned an accuracy score (0-2). Nerve coverage was considered adequate if ≥6 mm of circumferential staining was present. RESULTS: Accuracy evaluation indicated successful dye deposition in 10/12 [2 (0-2), median (range)] injections in the low volume group and 8/12 [2 (1-2)] injections in the high volume group. The majority (79.2%) of injections resulted in adequate nerve staining. There were no statistically significant differences between injectate volumes for accuracy (p = 0.64) or adequacy (p > 0.99) of staining. CONCLUSIONS: The infraorbital approach is a simple and practical method for maxillary nerve blockade in guinea pigs. An injectate volume of 0.1 mL results in adequate maxillary nerve coverage; however, additional studies are needed to assess the efficacy in clinical use.

Wobbly hedgehog syndrome- a progressive neurodegenerative disease.

Wobbly hedgehog syndrome (WHS) has been long considered to be a myelin disease primarily affecting the four-toed hedgehog. In this study, we have shown for the first time that demyelination is accompanied by extensive remyelination in WHS. However, remyelination is not enough to compensate for the axonal degeneration and neuronal loss, resulting in a progressive neurodegenerative disease reminiscent of progressive forms of multiple sclerosis (MS) in humans. Thus, understanding the pathological features of WHS may shed light on the disease progression in progressive MS and ultimately help to develop therapeutic strategies for both diseases.

Wobbly hedgehog syndrome- a progressive neurodegenerative disease.

Wobbly hedgehog syndrome (WHS) has been long considered to be a myelin disease primarily affecting the four-toed hedgehog. In this study, we have shown for the first time that demyelination is accompanied by extensive remyelination in WHS. However, remyelination is not enough to compensate for the axonal degeneration and neuronal loss, resulting in a progressive neurodegenerative disease reminiscent of progressive forms of multiple sclerosis (MS) in humans. Thus, understanding the pathological features of WHS may shed light on the disease progression in progressive MS and ultimately help to develop therapeutic strategies for both diseases. Highlights: Wobbly hedgehog syndrome (WHS) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease.Spongy degeneration of the brain and spinal cord is the diagnostic feature of WHS.WHS affected brain and spinal cord show extensive demyelination and remyelination.Axonal degeneration is accompanied by loss of neurons in WHS.

Retrospective evaluation of wobbly hedgehog syndrome in 49 African pygmy hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris): 2000-2020.

OBJECTIVE: To retrospectively evaluate the prevalence and clinical progression of wobbly hedgehog syndrome (WHS) and concurrent incidence of neoplasia in a cohort of African pygmy hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris). ANIMALS: 49 hedgehogs. CLINICAL PRESENTATION AND PROCEDURES: Medical records of hedgehogs from 7 institutions across the US over a 20-year period (2000 to 2020) were retrospectively reviewed. Inclusion criteria were hedgehogs of any sex or age with postmortem CNS histopathology consistent with WHS. Collected data included sex, age at onset and euthanasia, major histopathologic findings, reported neurologic clinical signs, and treatments administered. RESULTS: 24 males and 25 females were included. Fifteen of 49 (31%) individuals had subclinical WHS with no reported antemortem neurologic clinical signs. In neurologically affected (clinical) hedgehogs (n = 34), the mean ± SD age at onset was 3.3 ± 1.5 years with a median (range) time from onset to euthanasia of 51 days (1 to 319 days). In neurologically affected hedgehogs, the most commonly reported clinical signs were ataxia (n = 21) and pelvic limb paresis (16) and the most commonly administered treatment was meloxicam (13). Overall, 31 of 49 (63%) hedgehogs had a concurrent histopathologic diagnosis of neoplasia outside of the CNS. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The prognosis for hedgehogs with WHS is poor. No treatment had a significant effect on survival time, and neoplasia was a common comorbidity in the current cohort. A small but clinically relevant subset of neurologically normal hedgehogs had a histopathologic diagnosis of WHS.

Dermatologic Diseases of Four-Toed Hedgehogs.

Dermatologic diseases are frequently diagnosed in the four-toed hedgehog. Common clinical signs include spine loss, scales and crusts, pruritus, alopecia, and masses. Caparinia tripilis, family Psoroptidae, is the most common mite affecting hedgehogs, and is diagnosed via light microscopy. Dermatophytosis from Trichophyton erinacei infection is a common zoonotic dermatologic disease in pet hedgehogs. Diagnosis is through fungal culture. Neoplasia is another major cause of dermatologic diseases in four-toed hedgehogs. The diagnostic approach typically begins with a fine-needle aspirate but often requires a biopsy for a definitive diagnosis.

Successful outcome of shell fractures in freshwater turtles treated with plate or screws and wire fixation techniques: 51 cases (2014-2019).

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the outcome of surgical fixation of shell fractures in rehabilitated wild freshwater turtles. ANIMALS: 51 freshwater turtles with 86 shell fractures. PROCEDURES: The medical record database of a wildlife rehabilitation center in Wisconsin was searched from 2014 through 2019 for records of freshwater turtles with shell fractures repaired with a plate technique, screws and wire technique, or both. Signalment, fracture location, therapeutic approach (including the type of hardware used for repair), dry-docking duration, time to hardware removal, postremoval care, and outcome were evaluated. RESULTS: 36 of 51 (71%) turtles with shell fractures experienced successful fracture healing following surgical hardware fixation, and 33 (65%) were released. Shells of 38 (75%) turtles were repaired with plates only, 5 (10%) turtles with wire only, and 8 (16%) turtles with a combination of plates and screws and wires. Of the 51 turtles, 13 (25%) did not survive > 4 weeks following hardware repair, leaving 38 animals available to assess fracture healing. Median time to start staged removal was 42 days (range, 35 to 49 days) and to complete removal of the applied hardware was 56 days (range, 26 to 77 days). Complications associated with placement of the hardware occurred in 6 of 38 (16%) turtles. Complications included screw hole infection (4/38 [11%]), fracture necrosis (1/38 [3%]), and deep screw hole penetration (1/38 [3%]). CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results indicated that shell fractures in freshwater turtles treated with surgical fixation techniques had a successful outcome. Most complications were minor, and fractures improved with time, resulting in acceptable fracture healing for release.

Evaluation of glucose absorption rates following intracoelomic or subcutaneous administration in experimentally dehydrated inland bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps).

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate glucose absorption rates as an indirect measure of fluid absorption after SC or intracoelomic (ICe) administration of 2.5% dextrose solution to experimentally dehydrated inland bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). ANIMALS: 9 adult bearded dragons. PROCEDURES: In a randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover design study, bearded dragons were experimentally dehydrated with a previously described protocol and then received 2.5% dextrose solution (a 1:1 mixture of 5% dextrose in isotonic multiple electrolytes solution; 20 mL/kg), SC or ICe, or a control treatment (the same electrolytes solution without added glucose; 20 mL/kg). Blood glucose (BG) concentrations were measured at predetermined times up to 24 hours after fluid administration. There was a ≥ 14-day washout period between treatments. Mean changes in BG concentration from baseline were compared among treatments. RESULTS: Administration of 2.5% dextrose solution by either route increased BG concentration with a significantly greater change in values within 5 minutes, compared with control treatment results. The mean change in BG concentration after ICe administration was significantly greater than that after SC administration 15 and 30 minutes after injection, with mean differences of -50 and -36 mg/dL, respectively, for the SC treatment. Within 1 hour after fluid administration, there was no significant difference in BG values between the 2 dextrose administration routes. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Findings supported that fluid therapy by SC administration, which carries a lower risk of iatrogenic complications, can provide results similar to those achieved with ICe administration.

Development and Testing of a Sedation Scale for Use in Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus).

In biomedical research, rabbits are commonly sedated to facilitate a variety of procedures. Developing a sedation assessment scale enables standardization of levels of sedation and comparisons of sedation protocols, and may help in predicting sedation level requirements for different procedures. The goal of this study was to develop a rabbit sedation assessment scale using a psychometric approach. We hypothesized that the sedation scale would have construct validity, good internal consistency, and reliability. In a prospective, randomized, blinded study design, 15 (8 females, 7 males) healthy 1-y-old New Zealand white rabbits received 3 intramuscular treatments: midazolam (0.5 mg/kg; n = 6); midazolam (1.5 mg/kg)-ketamine (5 mg/kg; n = 7); and alfaxalone (4 mg/kg)-dexmedetomidine (0.1 mg/kg)-midazolam (0.2 mg/kg; n = 3). One rabbit received 2 treatments. A sedation scale was developed by using psychometric methods, with assessment performed by 6 independent raters who were blind to treatment. Final sedation scale items included posture, palpebral reflex, orbital tightening, lateral recumbency, loss of righting reflex, supraglottic airway device placement, toe pinch, and general appearance. The scale showed construct validity, good to very good interrater reliability for individual items (6 raters; intraclass correlation coefficient, 0.671 to 0.940), very good intrarater reliability (5 raters; intraclass correlation coefficient, 0.951 to 0.987), and excellent internal consistency (Cronbach α, 0.947). The sedation scale performed well under the conditions tested, suggesting that it can be applied in a wider range of settings (different populations, raters, sedation protocols).

Evaluation of supraglottic airway device use during inhalation anesthesia in healthy African pygmy hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris).

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate a supraglottic airway device (SGAD) designed for rabbits in African pygmy hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris) during inhalation anesthesia. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective, randomized, blinded experimental study. ANIMALS: A total of 12 adult African pygmy hedgehogs (seven male, five female). METHODS: Hedgehogs were placed in a chamber and anesthesia was induced using isoflurane in oxygen. Oropharyngeal endoscopy was performed and video recorded. The SGAD (v-gel R1) was inserted and connected to a Mapleson D circuit. Capnography, pulse oximetry and physiologic variables were measured during anesthesia, and lung inflation was tested at 10 and 20 cmH2O. With the SGAD temporarily disconnected, anesthetized hedgehogs were randomly positioned into right and left lateral, dorsal and sternal recumbency to evaluate the effect of a change in body position on SGAD placement. Oropharyngeal endoscopy was repeated at the end of anesthesia, and recovery time was recorded. Pre- and post-SGAD placement endoscopy videos were retrospectively reviewed and scored for gross trauma. RESULTS: The median [interquartile range (IQR)] time to successful SGAD placement was 38 (16-68) seconds. The time to SGAD placement decreased as the study progressed. SGAD required repositioning in six hedgehogs, median 2.5 (IQR, 1-3.5) adjustments each, to successfully perform lung inflation or maintain capnography readings. Lung inflation at 10 cmH2O was successfully performed without leakage in nine animals, and in the other three animals after adjusting the SGAD at 1-2 time points. Inflation at 20 cmH2O was rarely achieved without an air leak. Changes in heart and respiratory rates during anesthesia were not clinically relevant. Median endoscopic scores were 0 (no lesions) for both pre-and postplacement. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The SGAD was relatively quickly and easily placed, permitted lung inflation and caused no significant oropharyngeal damage. The SGAD is a practical option for airway management in African pygmy hedgehogs.

Neurologic examination of healthy adult African pygmy hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris).

OBJECTIVE: To describe a modified approach to neurologic examination of African pygmy hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris). ANIMALS: 12 adult hedgehogs (7 males and 5 females). PROCEDURES: Aspects of the standard neurologic examination of dogs and cats were evaluated for use with awake hedgehogs, and modified approaches to evaluating their normal behavior and mentation, select cranial nerves and refexes, and gait were then identified. Behavioral analysis and gait analysis were performed by using video recordings of hedgehogs in a novel environment. Performability and repeatability of all feasible aspects of the neurologic examination were assessed. RESULTS: Most aspects of the standard neurologic examination could be successfully performed, with repeatable results. However, certain aspects, especially those evaluating the pelvic limbs, were more difficult to perform successfully or were less repeatable. All hedgehogs lacked a menace response but displayed a contraction of the frontodorsalis muscle. Facial sensation testing was unreliable. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The entire standard neurologic examination could not be performed in hedgehogs. However, many aspects could be performed, and together they provided baseline data for neurologic examination of this species.

Evaluation of subcutaneous administration of alfaxalone-midazolam and ketamine-midazolam as sedation protocols in African pygmy hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris).

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate SC administration of 2 sedation protocols, ketamine-midazolam (KM) and alfaxalone-midazolam (AM), in African pygmy hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris). ANIMALS: 9 healthy adult hedgehogs (5 males, 4 females). PROCEDURES: A randomized, blinded, complete crossover study was performed. Sedation was induced by SC administration of either ketamine (30 mg/kg [14 mg/lb]) with midazolam (1 mg/kg [0.45 mg/lb]) or alfaxalone (3 mg/kg [1.4 mg/lb]) with midazolam (1 mg/kg), including a 2-week washout period between treatments. Flumazenil (0.05 mg/kg [0.02 mg/lb], SC) was administered 45 minutes after administration of either protocol to reverse the effects of midazolam. Physiologic variables, reflexes, and behaviors were monitored. Food intake and body weight were measured before and after sedation. RESULTS: Deep sedation characterized by complete loss of the righting reflex, decreased jaw tone, decreased pelvic limb withdrawal reflex, and preservation of the palpebral reflex was produced in 7 of 9 hedgehogs after KM administration and all 9 hedgehogs after AM administration. Mean ± SD time to loss of righting reflex was 6.4 ± 2.4 minutes after KM administration and 10 ± 4.0 minutes after AM administration. Following flumazenil administration, no significant difference was found in recovery time between sedation with KM (18.8 ± 12.7 minutes) and AM (14.4 ± 7.8 minutes). No significant differences were found in respiratory rate, oxygen saturation, or body temperature between protocols, whereas heart rate was higher for sedation with KM. Both sedation protocols resulted in a transient reduction in food intake. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Subcutaneous administration of KM and AM provided deep sedation that might be useful to facilitate routine, noninvasive procedures in hedgehogs.

Antinociceptive efficacy and safety of subcutaneous buprenorphine hydrochloride administration in African pygmy hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris).

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate antinociceptive efficacy and safety of SC buprenorphine hydrochloride administration in African pygmy hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris). ANIMALS: 12 healthy adult hedgehogs (7 males and 5 females). PROCEDURES: 3 crossover experimental trials were performed. In the first trial, all 12 hedgehogs were given single SC injections of buprenorphine (0.01 mg/kg [0.0045 mg/lb]), buprenorphine (0.03 mg/kg [0.014 mg/lb]), or saline (0.9% NaCl) solution (0.16 mL/kg [0.073 mL/lb]), and sedation and hind limb thermal withdrawal latency were measured. In the second trial, 6 hedgehogs were given single SC injections of buprenorphine (0.05 mg/kg [0.023 mg/lb]) or saline solution (0.16 mL/kg), and sedation and withdrawal latency were evaluated. In the third trial, 10 hedgehogs were given 3 doses of buprenorphine (0.05 mg/kg, SC, q 24 h) or saline solution (0.16 mL/kg, SC, q 24 h), and food intake and body weight were measured for 6 days. RESULTS: For all 3 experimental trials, the sedation score was 0 for all hedgehogs at all assessment times. A single 0.01-mg/kg dose of buprenorphine significantly increased thermal withdrawal latency for 36 hours, and single 0.03- and 0.05-mg/kg doses significantly increased latencies for 48 hours. Increased locomotor activity was noted in a few hedgehogs after administration of the 0.03- and 0.05-mg/kg doses. Daily administration of buprenorphine did not have significant effects on food intake or body weight. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: SC administration of buprenorphine at single doses of 0.01, 0.03, and 0.05 mg/kg provided safe, long-lasting antinociception in African pygmy hedgehogs without apparent sedative effects.

Emergency tracheotomy and subsequent tracheal resection and anastomosis in a blue crane (Anthropoides paradiseus).

CASE DESCRIPTION: A 7-year-old female blue crane (Anthropoides paradiseus) was initially evaluated after it had suddenly developed signs of respiratory distress following aspiration of a rock. Emergency tracheotomy had been performed, and the rock had been removed from the proximal cervical portion of the trachea. Fifty-one days later, the clinical signs had returned and the crane was reevaluated. CLINICAL FINDINGS: On reevaluation, no obvious external abnormalities were appreciated at the previous surgical site and no discharge was observed from the glottis. Computed tomography and tracheoscopy revealed marked tracheal stenosis and architectural collapse of the trachea at the previous surgery site. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME: Tracheal resection and anastomosis was performed to remove the stenotic tracheal segment. Histologic examination of the resected tracheal segment revealed pyogranulomas with intralesional coccobacilli, fungal hyphae consistent with Aspergillus spp, possible parasitic ova, and features suggestive of mild to moderate heterophilic and lymphoplasmacytic tracheitis. The crane was treated with piroxicam, ceftiofur crystalline free acid, terbinafine, and itraconazole. At a follow-up examination 12 weeks later, no abnormalities were appreciated, and the surgical site had completely healed. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: To the authors' knowledge, this is the first reported case of successful tracheal resection and anastomosis in a bird of the order Gruiformes. The surgical approach used for the blue crane may be useful for removal of tracheal foreign bodies in this and other long-necked avian species.

Evaluation of subcutaneous administration of alfaxalone-midazolam and dexmedetomidine-midazolam for sedation of ball pythons (Python regius).

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate SC administration of alfaxalone-midazolam and dexmedetomidine-midazolam for sedation of ball pythons (Python regius). ANIMALS: 12 healthy juvenile ball pythons. PROCEDURES: In a randomized crossover study, each snake was administered a combination of alfaxalone (5 mg/kg [2.3 mg/lb]) and midazolam (0.5 mg/kg [0.23 mg/lb]) and a combination of dexmedetomidine (0.05 mg/kg [0.023 mg/lb]) and midazolam (0.5 mg/kg), SC, with a washout period of at least 7 days between protocols. Respiratory and heart rates and various reflexes and behaviors were assessed and compared between protocols. Forty-five minutes after protocol administration, sedation was reversed by SC administration of flumazenil (0.05 mg/kg) alone or in combination with atipamezole (0.5 mg/kg; dexmedetomidine-midazolam protocol only). Because of difficulties with visual assessment of respiratory effort after sedative administration, the experiment was repeated for a subset of 3 ball pythons, with plethysmography used to assess respiration. RESULTS: Both protocols induced a similar level of moderate sedation with no adverse effects aside from transient apnea. Cardiopulmonary depression was more profound, but time to recovery after reversal was significantly shorter, for the dexmedetomidine-midazolam protocol than for the alfaxalone-midazolam protocol. Plethysmographic findings were consistent with visual observations and suggested that snakes compensated for a decrease in respiratory rate by increasing tidal volume amplitude. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results indicated that both protocols induced clinically relevant sedation in ball pythons and should be useful for minor procedures such as venipuncture and diagnostic imaging. However, caution should be used when sedating snakes with compromised cardiopulmonary function. (J Am Vet Med Assoc 2020;256:573-579.

Recurrent Subcutaneous Teratoma in an Adult Red-crowned Amazon Parrot (Amazona viridigenalis).

An approximately 42-year-old, wild-caught, red-crowned Amazon parrot (Amazona viridigenalis) was evaluated for a subcutaneous mass to the right of the keel. Cytologic examination of a fine needle aspirate of the mass were suggestive of granulomatous inflammation. The mass was surgically excised, and the parrot was treated with oral nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Histologically, the mass was diagnosed as a teratoma with stratified squamous epithelial and neuroectodermal components. Tumor cells extended to surgical margins. Two years later, the neoplasm recurred, with regrowth of only the neuroectodermal component. The neoplasm was again removed surgically, but it recurred again 14 months later, necessitating a third surgery. Histopathologic examination confirmed recurrence of the original neoplasm in both instances, with incomplete margins on both excisions.

Assessment of sedation after intranasal administration of midazolam and midazolam-butorphanol in cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus).

OBJECTIVE To compare sedation in cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) after intranasal administration of midazolam and midazolam-butorphanol. ANIMALS 9 healthy adult cockatiels. PROCEDURES A randomized, controlled, blinded, complete crossover study was conducted. Birds were assigned to 3 treatment groups. Midazolam (3 mg/kg), midazolam-butorphanol (3 mg/kg for each drug), or sterile saline (0.9% NaCl) solution (control treatment) was administered intranasally. Sedation quality was assessed at 3 time points by use of eye and body position; response to visual, auditory, and tactile stimulation; and response during manual restraint on the basis of eye position and struggling intensity. To evaluate attenuation of the manual restraint-induced stress response, heart rate, respiratory rate, and cloacal temperature were measured over a 15-minute period. Treatments were repeated after a minimum washout period of 7 days. RESULTS Median onset of first sedation effects was 85 seconds (range, 60 to 120 seconds) for midazolam and 90 seconds (range, 45 to 180 seconds) for midazolam-butorphanol. Midazolam-butorphanol resulted in significantly less vigorous struggling during restraint than did midazolam or the control treatment. Heart rate did not differ significantly among treatments. The stress-induced increase in respiratory rate was significantly attenuated by midazolam and midazolam-butorphanol, whereas the increase in cloacal temperature was not attenuated by midazolam or midazolam-butorphanol. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Intranasal administration of midazolam and midazolam-butorphanol resulted in a rapid onset of sedation in cockatiels. Midazolam-butorphanol resulted in deeper sedation in both restrained and unrestrained birds than did midazolam alone. Midazolam and midazolam-butorphanol both provided safe and effective sedation in cockatiels.

Effect of injection site on dexmedetomidine-ketamine induced sedation in leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius).

OBJECTIVE To evaluate whether the sedative effects of a combination of dexmedetomidine and ketamine differed when it was administered IM in a hind limb versus a forelimb of leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius). DESIGN Randomized crossover study. ANIMALS 9 healthy adult leopard geckos. PROCEDURES Each gecko received a combination of dexmedetomidine (0.1 mg/kg [0.045 mg/lb]) and ketamine (10 mg/kg [4.5 mg/lb]; DK), IM, in a forelimb and hind limb in a randomized order and with a 7-day interval between treatments. All geckos received atipamezole (1 mg/kg [0.45 mg/lb], SC) 45 minutes after DK administration. Palpebral and righting reflexes, jaw tone, and superficial pain and escape responses were each assessed on a 3-point scale, and the scores for those variables were summed to calculate a sedation score. Those variables and heart and respiratory rates were evaluated at predetermined times before and for 1 hour after DK administration. RESULTS For the forelimb treatment, mean sedation score was higher and mean heart rate was lower than the corresponding values for the hind limb treatment at most time points after DK administration. The righting reflex remained intact for all 9 geckos following the hind limb treatment but became absent in 7 geckos following the forelimb treatment. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results indicated that the extent of DK-induced sedation was greater when the combination was injected IM in a forelimb versus a hind limb of leopard geckos, likely owing to a hepatic first-pass effect following hind limb injection. In reptiles, IM hind limb administration of drugs that undergo hepatic metabolism and excretion is not recommended.

Diagnosis and management of inflammatory bowel disease in a harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) with suspected fenbendazole toxicosis.

CASE DESCRIPTION A 14-year-old 4.1-kg (9.02-lb) male harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) was evaluated because of vomiting, anorexia, lethargy, and weight loss (decrease of 0.35 kg [0.77 lb]) of 4 weeks' duration. The bird had previously been treated orally with fenbendazole after the initial onset of clinical signs. CLINICAL FINDINGS An initial CBC revealed marked heteropenia and anemia, but whole-body contrast-enhanced CT images and other diagnostic test findings were unremarkable. Clinical signs persisted, and additional diagnostic testing failed to reveal the cause. During celiotomy, a biopsy specimen of the duodenum was obtained for histologic examination, which revealed lymphoplasmacytic inflammation, consistent with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). TREATMENT AND OUTCOME Prior to histopathologic diagnosis of IBD, barium sulfate administered via gavage resulted in a temporary improvement of clinical signs. Following diagnosis of IBD, corticosteroid administration was initiated in conjunction with antifungal prophylaxis. Cessation of vomiting and a return to normal appetite occurred within 3 days. Fifteen months after cessation of corticosteroid treatment, the eagle continued to do well. CLINICAL RELEVANCE To our knowledge, this was the first report of diagnosis and management of IBD in an avian species. For the eagle of the present report, results of several diagnostic tests increased clinical suspicion of IBD, but histologic examination of an intestinal biopsy specimen was required for definitive diagnosis. Although successful in this case, steroid administration in avian species must be carefully considered. Conclusive evidence of fenbendazole toxicosis was not obtained, although it was highly suspected in this bird.