Risk factors for football injuries in young players aged 7 to 12 years.

Football (soccer) is very popular among children. Little is known about risk factors for football injuries in children. The aim was to analyze potential injury risk factors in 7- to 12-year-old players. We collected prospective data in Switzerland and the Czech Republic over two seasons. Coaches reported exposure of players (in hours), absence, and injury data via an Internet-based registration system. We analyzed time-to-injury data with extended Cox models accounting for correlations on team- and intra-person levels. We analyzed injury risk in relation to age, sex, playing position, preferred foot, and regarding age-independent body height, body mass, and BMI. Further, we analyzed injury risk in relation to playing surface. In total, 6038 player seasons with 395 295 hours of football exposure were recorded and 417 injuries occurred. Injury risk increased by 46% (Hazard Ratio 1.46 [1.35; 1.58]; P < .001) per year of life. Left-footed players had a higher injury risk (Hazard Ratio 1.53 [1.07; 2.19]; P = .02) for training injuries compared to right-footed players. Injury risk was increased in age-adjusted taller players (higher percentile rank). Higher match-training ratios were associated with a lower risk of match injuries. Injury risk was increased on artificial turf (Rate Ratio 1.39 [1.12; 1.73]; P < .001) and lower during indoor sessions (Rate Ratio 0.68 [0.52; 0.88]; P < .001) compared to natural grass. Age is known as a risk factor in older players and was confirmed to be a risk factor in children's football. Playing surface and leg dominance have also been discussed previously as risk factors. Differences in injury risks in relation to sex should be investigated in the future.

Effects of different endurance exercise modalities on migraine days and cerebrovascular health in episodic migraineurs: A randomized controlled trial.

Aerobic exercise training is a promising complementary treatment option in migraine and can reduce migraine days and improve retinal microvascular function. Our aim was to elucidate whether different aerobic exercise programs at high vs moderate intensities distinctly affect migraine days as primary outcome and retinal vessel parameters as a secondary. In this randomized controlled trial, migraine days were recorded by a validated migraine diary in 45 migraineurs of which 36 (female: 28; age: 36 (SD:10)/BMI: 23.1 (5.3) completed the training period (dropout: 20%). Participants were assigned (Strata: age, gender, fitness and migraine symptomatology) to either high intensity interval training (HIT), moderate continuous training (MCT), or a control group (CON). Intervention groups trained twice a week over a 12-week intervention period. Static retinal vessel analysis, central retinal arteriolar (CRAE) and venular (CRVE) diameters, as well as the arteriolar-to-venular diameter ratio (AVR) were obtained for cerebrovascular health assessment. Incremental treadmill testing yielded maximal and submaximal fitness parameters. Overall, moderate migraine day reductions were observed (ηP2 = .12): HIT revealed 89% likely beneficial effects (SMD = 1.05) compared to MCT (SMD = 0.50) and CON (SMD = 0.59). Very large intervention effects on AVR improvement (ηP2 = 0.27), slightly favoring HIT (SMD=-0.43) over CON (SMD=0), were observed. HIT seems more effective for migraine day reduction and improvement of cerebrovascular health compared to MCT. Intermittent exercise programs of higher intensities may need to be considered as an additional treatment option in migraine patients.

Head injuries in children's football-results from two prospective cohort studies in four European countries.

Head injuries are considered harmful in children. We analyzed head and neck injuries in organized football in 7- to 12-year-old children. Data for this analysis were obtained from a prospective cohort study over two consecutive football seasons in two European countries, and a randomized intervention trial over one season in four European countries. Football exposure and injuries were documented through an online database. Detailed information regarding injury characteristics and medical follow-up was retrieved from coaches, children and parents by phone. Thirty-nine head injuries and one neck injury (5% of all 791 injuries) were documented during 9933 player-seasons (total football exposure 688 045 hours). The incidence was 0.25 [95%CI 0.15, 0.35] head/neck injuries per 1000 match hours (N=23 match injuries) and 0.03 [95%CI 0.02, 0.03] per 1000 training hours. Eleven concussions (27.5%), nine head contusions (22.5%), eight lacerations or abrasions (20%), two nose fractures (2.5%), and two dental injuries (2.5%) occurred. The remaining eight injuries were nose bleeding or other minor injuries. Thirty injuries (75%) resulted from contact with another player, and ten injuries were due to collision with an object, falling or a hit by the ball. Whereas 70% of all head injuries (N=28) were due to frontal impacts, 73% of concussions (N=8) resulted from an impact to the occiput. The incidence and severity of head injuries in children's football are low. Coaches and parents, however, should be sensitized regarding the potential of concussions, particularly after an impact to the occiput.

Pilates vs. Balance Training in Health Community-Dwelling Seniors: a 3-arm, Randomized Controlled Trial.

The study examined effects of traditional balance vs. mat-based Pilates training on balance and trunk strength in healthy community dwellers. Forty-eight seniors were either stratified to a balance training group (BAL, n=16, 69.1 (SD 5.8) y), Pilates training group (PIL, n=17, 70.8 (6.5) y) or control group (CON, n=15, 69.2 (6.1) y). BAL performed traditional balance training, while PIL conducted mat-based Pilates-exercises (8 weeks, 2 sessions/week 66 min each). Balance performance (single limb stance and perturbed kneeling, Y-Balance test), dynamic and isometric trunk flexion and extension were assessed during pre- and post-testing. According to the magnitude-based inference approach, substantial positive effects in favor of BAL compared to CON were found for the Y-balance score (right leg, effect size (d)=0.68; left leg, d=0.56), trunk extension (d=0.68) and single leg stance (right leg, d=0.61; left leg, d=0.38). Dynamic (d=0.32) and isometric (d=0.15) trunk flexion revealed unclear effects. For the Y-balance score (right leg, d=0.48, left leg, d=0.75) and single leg stance (right leg, +d=0.61%; left leg, d=0.67), interestingly, BAL substantially exceeded PIL. PIL vs. CON revealed unclear effects for most parameters (0.05

Cardiovascular risk and fitness in veteran football players.

Veteran football players above 40 years have rarely been subject to scientific investigations. This is worrisome because their number is considerable and their cardiovascular risk probably increased. Therefore, a cross-sectional study was conducted in 100 football players between 40 and 63 years of age. This included a medical history and physical examination, venous blood sampling, measurement of resting blood pressure, a resting electrocardiogram (ECG), an exhaustive cycle ergometry and a multistage field test. Also, measurements of heart rate and blood lactate concentration were carried out during one typical training session and one match. Participants trained 1.0 ± 0.6 sessions per week and played 27 ± 8 matches per season. Of them, 19% were smokers. Resting blood pressure was 138 ± 15/88 ± 8 mmHg. Hypertension prevalence (WHO definition) was 66%. Total cholesterol averaged 220 ± 41 mg . dl(-1), HDL 46 ± 13 mg . dl(-1) and LDL 134 ± 33 mg . dl(-1). The average 10-year risk for cardiovascular events (Framingham score) was 6%. Mean maximal power output on the cycle ergometer was 2.8 ± 0.6 W . kg(-1), mean VO2peak 40.0 ± 7.3 ml . min(-1) . kg(-1). Comparing training and competition, no significant differences in cardiovascular and metabolic load were found. In summary, their cardiovascular risk was similar to age-adjusted reference values. However, they showed slightly better ergometric performance. More frequent training stimuli might be necessary to reach more favourable risk factor profiles. Training and competition lead to similar cardiocirculatory and metabolic stress which is considerably high and might put players into danger who have pre-existing cardiac disease.

Slackline training and neuromuscular performance in seniors: A randomized controlled trial.

Slackline training (balancing on nylon ribbons) has been shown to improve neuromuscular performance in children and adults. Comparable studies in seniors are lacking. Thus, 32 seniors were randomly assigned [strata: age, gender, physical activity (PA)] to an intervention [INT; n = 16, age: 65 ± 4 years, PA: 9 ± 5 h/week] or control [CON, n = 16, age: 63 ± 4 years, PA: 8 ± 4 h/week] group. Slackline training was given for 6 weeks (3 times per week, attendance 97%). Static and slackline standing balance performance, force development, and maximal strength of the ankle muscles were assessed before and after slackline training. Muscle activity (lower limb and trunk) was recorded during balance testing. Moderate to large group × time interactions (0.02 < P < 0.04, 0.11 < ηp (2) < 0.17) in favor of INT were found for slackline standing times (INT: left, +278%, P = 0.02; right, +328%, P = 0.03; tandem, +94%, P = 0.007) and muscle activity during single-limb slackline standing [INT: right: rectus abdominis (RA), P = 0.003, -15%; multifidus (MF), P = 0.01, -15%; left: tibialis anterior (TIB), P = 0.03, -12%; soleus (SOL), P = 0.006, -18%; RA, P = 0.04, -11%; MF, P = 0.01, -16%; gastrocnemius medialis (GM), P = 0.02, -19%]. Static balance performance, ankle strength, and power were not affected. Slackline training induced large task-specific improvements of slackline standing performance accompanied with reductions of lower limb and trunk muscle activity. Transfer effects to static balance and strength measures seem limited.

Influence of physical fitness and activity behavior on retinal vessel diameters in primary schoolchildren.

Retinal vessel alterations have been shown to be associated with cardiovascular risk factors and physical inactivity as early as childhood. In this context, the analysis of physical activity in children has solely been based on questionnaire assessments. The study aimed to examine the association of physical fitness performance and self-reported physical activity with retinal vessel diameters in young children. Three hundred ninety-one primary schoolchildren [7.3 years (SD 0.4)] were examined in this cross-sectional study. The primary outcome was endurance performance measured with the 20-m shuttle run. The additional tests consisted of a 20-m sprint, jumping sidewards and balancing backwards. Retinal microcirculation was assessed using a static retinal vessel analyzer. Parents completed questionnaires about physical and sedentary activities. Endurance performance was associated with narrower retinal venular diameters [-0.9 (95%CI: -1.8; -0.1) measuring units (mu)/ unit shuttle run, P = 0.04] and a higher arteriolar to venular ratio [0.003 (-0.001; 0.006)/unit shuttle run, P = 0.06]. The sprint performance was associated with narrower retinal arterioles [4.7 (0.8; 8.6) mu/unit sprint, P = 0.02]. Indoor playing activity correlated with narrower retinal venules [-0.04 (-0.07; -0.01) mu/per unit, P = 0.02]. Our data suggest that objectively measured endurance performance relates with better retinal vessel health in early childhood.

A new injury prevention programme for children's football--FIFA 11+ Kids--can improve motor performance: a cluster-randomised controlled trial.

The present study evaluated the effects of a newly developed injury prevention programme for children's football ("FIFA 11+ Kids") on motor performance in 7-12-year-old children. We stratified 12 football teams (under-9/-11/-13 age categories) into intervention (INT, N = 56 players) and control groups (CON, N = 67). INT conducted the 15-min warm-up programme "FIFA 11+ Kids" twice a week for 10 weeks. CON followed a standard warm-up (sham treatment). Pre- and post-tests were conducted using: single leg stance; Y-balance test; drop and countermovement jump; standing long jump; 20-m sprint; agility run; slalom dribble; and wall volley test. We used magnitude-based inferences and linear mixed-effects models to analyse performance test results. We observed likely beneficial effects favouring INT in Y-balance (right leg; +3.2%; standardised mean difference (SMD) = 0.34; P = 0.58) and agility run (+3.6%; SMD = 0.45; P = 0.008). Possibly beneficial effects were found in Y-balance, drop jump reactive strength index, drop jump height, countermovement jump, standing long jump, slalom dribble and wall volley test. At least possibly beneficial improvements in favour of "FIFA 11+ Kids" were observed in nearly all parameters. Most effects were small, but slight improvements in motor performance may potentially contribute to a reduction of injury risk.

Fundamental movement skills in preschoolers: a randomized controlled trial targeting object control proficiency.

BACKGROUND: Adequately developed fundamental movement skills, particularly object control dimensions, are considered essential to learn more complex movement patterns and to increase the likelihood to successfully participate in organized and non-organized sports during later years. Thus, the present randomized controlled trial aimed at improving object control dimensions at an early state in a kindergarten setting. METHODS: Catching, throwing, kicking, rolling and stationary dribbling were assessed via gross motor development 2 (TGMD-2) testing in 41 normally developed preschoolers. On a cluster-randomized basis [strata: age, sex and body mass index (BMI)], three kindergartens were randomly assigned to an intervention group (n = 22, INT, age: 4.6 ± 1.0 years; BMI: 16.2 ± 1.1 kg/m(2) ) and three to a control group (n = 19, CON: age: 4.5 ± 1.2 years; BMI: 16.8 ± 1.2 kg/m(2) ). Twelve structured training sessions were given within 6 weeks (12 sessions). The total training volume was 330 min. RESULTS: Moderate time × group interaction were observed for the total sum score (Δ+22%, P = 0.05) and dribbling (Δ+41%, P = 0.002). Adjusting for baseline differences analyses of covariance did not affect these results. Interestingly, likely to most likely practically worthwhile effects were detected for the total sum score, catching and dribbling. CONCLUSION: Object control dimensions such as dribbling and catching that apparently rely on rhythmical movement patterns and anticipatory eye-hand coordination seem to benefit from short-term object control training. These skills are considered important for successful team-sport participation and appropriate sportive motor development.

Jeopardizing Christmas: Why spoiled kids and a tight schedule could make Santa Claus fall?

Santa Claus' spatio-temporal gait characteristics, ground reaction forces during treadmill walking as well as postural sway during loaded, unloaded and cognitive interference tasks were examined in order to estimate his fall risk. Seventeen healthy males, disguised as researchers and students (age: 30±10 years; height: 179±6 years; weight: 76±7kg; BMI: 24±2kg/m(2); physical activity: 12±4h/week) and who still believe in Santa Claus randomly underwent balance and gait analyses with and without cognitive interference. The conditions were to be dressed as "Santa Claus" (wearing costume consisting of a beard, cap, robe, heavy sack with a load of 20kg) or dressed in "normal clothing" (no costume). Spatiotemporal gait parameters (walking velocity, gait variability and stride time, length and width), ground reaction forces (GRF) (left- and right-sided heel strike and push off) and postural sway (30s tandem stance on a force plate) were measured. "Santa-effects" (0.001

Trunk muscle strength tests to predict injuries, attrition and military ability in soldiers.

AIM: Physical fitness is related to injuries, attrition and military ability in military organisations. Therefore, all military organizations of the North Atlantic Treaty Organizations (NATO) test their employees' physical fitness at least once a year. The sit-up test is part of most of the fitness test batteries used. A possible alternative to the sit-up test is the global trunk muscle strength test (TMS). The aim of the present study was to compare the predictability of injuries, attrition and military ability between TMS and sit-up test performances. METHODS: A total of 230 male recruits in a Swiss Army fusilier company completed TMS and sit-up tests in week 1 of military training school. During the following 13 weeks, injuries, attrition and military ability data were collected. Statistical analysis included backward binary regression and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis to compare the discriminative power of TMS and the sit-up test to predict injuries, attrition and military ability. RESULTS: ROC analysis revealed larger areas under the curve for total injuries, attrition and military ability for the TMS (areatotal injuries=0.58; areaattrition=0.60; areamilitary ability=0.59) than for the sit-up test (areatotal injuries=0.53; areaattrition=0.50; areamilitary ability=0.56). Binary logistic regression analysis revealed low body mass index, low TMS performance and cigarette smoking to be potential risk factors for injuries; while sit-up performance was extracted from the model. CONCLUSION: The TMS seems to be a valid alternative to the sit-up test in a military setting due to its appropriate results in predicting injuries in the present study.

Effects of acute bouts of endurance exercise on retinal vessel diameters are age and intensity dependent.

Alterations of retinal vessel diameters are associated with increased cardiovascular risk. We aimed to investigate changes in retinal vessel diameters in response to acute dynamic exercise of different intensities and whether these changes are age dependent. Seventeen healthy seniors (median (IQR) age 68 (65, 69) years) and 15 healthy young adults (median (IQR) age 26 (25, 28) years) first performed a maximal treadmill test (MTT) followed by a submaximal treadmill test (SMTT) and a resting control condition in randomised order. Central retinal arteriolar (CRAE) and central retinal venular (CRVE) diameter equivalents were measured before as well as 5 (t5) and 40 (t40) minutes after exercise cessation using a static retinal vessel analyser. Both exercise intensities induced a significant dilatation in CRAE and CRVE at t5 compared to the control condition (P < 0.001). At t40, the mean increase in CRAE and CRVE was greater for MTT compared to that for SMTT (CRAE 1.7 µm (95 % confidence interval (CI) -0.1, 3.6; P = 0.061); CRVE 2.2 µm (95 % CI 0.4, 4.1; P = 0.019)). However, the estimated difference at t5 between seniors and young adults in their response to MTT compared to SMTT was 5.3 µm (95 % CI 2.0, 8.5; P = 0.002) for CRAE and 4.1 µm (95 % CI -0.4, 8.6; P = 0.076) for CRVE. Wider arteries and veins after maximal versus submaximal exercise for seniors compared to young adults suggest that myogenic vasoconstriction in response to exhaustive exercise may be reduced in seniors. Age-related loss of vascular reactivity has clinical implications since the arteriolar vasoconstriction protects the retinal capillary bed from intraluminal pressure peaks.

Effects of stair-climbing on balance, gait, strength, resting heart rate, and submaximal endurance in healthy seniors.

Stair-climbing serves as a feasible opportunity to remain physically active within everyday-life. Data on neuromuscular and cardiorespiratory performance after regular stair-climbing in seniors are scarce. Forty-eight seniors were stratified to a one- (taking every step, INT1) or two-step strategy (every second step, INT2) or a control group (CON). Thirty-nine seniors [females: n = 22, males: n = 17; age: 70.5 (SD 5.1) years; BMI: 25.8 (3.1) kg/m(2)] completed the 8-week intervention (three weekly sessions). Before and after the intervention, balance, gait, strength, and submaximal endurance (at different intensities) were assessed. Maximal strength and explosive power did not improve significantly (0.10 < P < 0.78). Resting heart rate was significantly reduced in INT2 (-8/min) compared with INT1 (0/min, P = 0.02) and CON (0/min, P = 0.03). Compared with CON, perceived exertion for all intensities (0.007 < P < 0.03) and submaximal exercise heart rate during moderate uphill walking significantly decreased (-11/min; P < 0.05) in INT2. Step counts for forward beam balancing (4.5 cm width) increased in INT2 (P = 0.007) compared with CON. With more pronounced effects in INT2, stair-climbing significantly improved resting and exercise heart rates, perceived exertion, and dynamic balance performance in healthy seniors and may contribute to better overall fitness, reduced fall risk, and less perceived strain during daily life activities.

Effects of slackline training on balance, jump performance & muscle activity in young children.

The study investigated the effects of slackline training (rope balancing) on balance, jump performance and muscle activity in children. Two primary-school classes (intervention, n=21, INT: age: 10.1 (SD 0.4) y, weight: 33.1 (4.5) kg; control, n=13, CON: age: 10.0 (SD 0.4) y, weight: 34.7 (7.4) kg) participated. Training was performed within 6 weeks, 5 times per week for 10 min each day. Balance (static and dynamic stance), countermovement jumps, reverse balancing on beams (3, 4.5 and 6 cm width), slackline standing (single- and double-limb) and electromyographic activity (soleus, gastrocnemius, tibialis anterior) were examined. INT significantly improved single- and double-limb slackline standing (double limb: 5.1 (3.4) s-17.2 (14.4) s; right leg: 8.2 (5.8) s-38.3 (36.0) s; left leg: 10.6 (5.8) s-49.0 (56.3) s; p<0.001; 0.17<ηp²<0.22). Reduced left-leg dynamic sway (-20.8%, p=0.06, ηp²=0.10), improved 4.5 cm balancing (+18.5%, p=0.08, ηp²=0.10) and decreased muscle activity during slackline standing for the mm. soleus (-23%, p=0.10, ηp²=0.18) and tibialis anterior (-26%, p=0.15, ηp²=0.14) was observed for INT. Jump performance remained unchanged (p=0.28, ηp²=0.04). In conclusion, daily slackline training results in large slackline-specific balance improvements. Transfer effects to static and dynamic stance, reverse balancing or jumping performance seemed to be restricted.

Reproducibility of pacing profiles in competitive swimmers.

This study aimed at determining the reproducibility of pacing profiles (PP) during simulated swimming trials as well as the comparison between simulated and real competitions (RC). Sixteen competitive front crawl swimmers (7 females, 9 males) performed 2 × 200 m, 2 × 400 m and 2 × 800 m tests, each test 7 days apart. All 100 m split (ST) and total times (TT) were recorded (additionally 50 m ST for the 200 m bouts). The PP of one RC within a maximum of 8 weeks before or after data acquisition was used for comparison. No difference was observed between test and retest for TT (p<0.16). Coefficients of variation (CV) for all ST during 800 m were between 0.9 and 1.8% (standard error of measurement (SEM)=0.6-2.1 s), except for the last 2 sections (CV=2.5% and 2.9%). During 400 m and 200 m, CV was below 1.7% for each section (SEM=0.4-1.7 s). Mean differences between test and retest ranged from 1.8 s (Cl: 0.1-3.4 s) in the 400 m bouts to 4.1 s (Cl: 1.3-9.5 s) for the 800 m races. Although section times were faster during all sections of RC compared to SC, PP was similar during both trials (p>0.22). However, swimmers were faster in each section during RC. In conclusion, PP seem stable, at least during the first three quarters of the race. Furthermore, simulated trials seem to be an acceptable model to analyse PP in competitive swimming.

Indicators for high physical strain and overload in elite football players.

Laboratory, psychological and performance parameters as possible indicators of physical strain and overload during highly demanding competition phases were evaluated in elite male football players. In two studies with the same objective, periods of high (HE: >270 min during 3 weeks before testing) and low (LE: <270 min) match exposure were compared over the course of an entire season. In study 1 (n=88 players of the first and second German leagues; age: 25.6 ± 4.3 years; body mass index (BMI): 23.2 ± 1.0 kg/m(2) ), blood count, CK, urea, uric acid, CRP and ferritin were determined. In study 2, 19 players of the third German league and the highest under-19 league (age: 19.7 ± 2.8 years; BMI: 22.8 ± 1.7 kg/m(2) ) were screened for individual vertical jump height, maximal velocity and by the Recovery-Stress-Questionnaire for Athletes (REST-Q Sport). The mean differences in exposure times were 180 min (study 1: quartiles: 105, 270 min) and 247 min (study 2: 180, 347 min), respectively. Significant differences were found neither in blood parameters (study 1; P>0.36) nor in physiological testing results or in REST-Q scores (study 2; P>0.20). A 3-week period of high match exposure in elite football players does not affect laboratory, psychometric and performance parameters.

Seasonal changes in stress indicators in high level football.

This study aimed at describing changes in stress and performance indicators throughout a competitive season in high level football. 15 players (19.5±3.0 years, 181±5 cm, 75.7±9.0 kg) competing under professional circumstances were tested at baseline and 3 times during the season 2008/09 (in-season 1, 2, 3). Testing consisted of the Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes (Total Stress and Recovery score), vertical jump tests (counter movement and drop jump (DJ)), and a maximal ramp-like running test. Average match exposure was higher during a 3-weeks period prior to in-season 3 compared to in-season 1 and 2 (1.5 vs. 1 h/week, p=0.05). Total Stress score was elevated at in-season 1 and 2 compared to baseline (p<0.01) with a further increase at in-season 3 (p<0.03; generalized eta squared (η(2)(g))=0.37). Total Recovery score was decreased at in-season 1 and 3 compared to baseline (p<0.05; η(2)(g)=0.21). Maximal running velocity (V(max)) and jumping heights were not significantly affected (η(2)(g)≤0.04). Changes in DJ height and V (max) between baseline and in-season 3 were correlated with the corresponding changes in Total Stress score (r=-0.55 and r=-0.61, p<0.03). Usual match exposure during a professional football season does not induce relevant changes in performance indicators. Accumulated stress and a lack of recovery towards the end of a season might be indicated by psychometric deteriorations.

Football to tackle overweight in children.

The present study aimed at analyzing the efficacy of a 6-month football training program compared with a standard exercise program on health and fitness parameters in overweight children. The study design was a 6-month, two-arm, parallel-group randomized trial. Twenty-two overweight children were randomly assigned to two groups (age=10.8+/-1.2 years, height=1.56+/-0.08 m, weight= 65.1+/-11.4 kg). One group conducted a football training program, and the other group an established standard sports program. Both interventions took place three times per week from mid-May to mid-November. Before, after 3 months and after the training period, comprehensive testing was conducted: anthropometric characteristics, cycling ergometry, psychometric monitoring as well as several motor ability tests. Maximal performance capacity increased and submaximal heart rate during cycling ergometry decreased significantly. Several motor skills as well as self-esteem also improved considerably. Body composition and other psychometric variables remained nearly unchanged. No relevant differences were observed between both exercise programs. It can be concluded that a 6-month football training is as efficacious in improving the physical capacity, health-related fitness parameters and self-esteem of overweight children as a standard exercise program. These results provide further evidence that playing football has significant health effects.

Recovery training in cyclists: ergometric, hormonal and psychometric findings.

This randomized cross-over study aimed at comparing the recovery effect of 4 days of low-intensity, discipline-specific training of 1 vs 3 h daily. Eleven athletes completed two periods of 13 days intensive cycling training (IT), followed by a recovery period consisting of 4 days of low-intensity cycling for either 1 or 3 h each day. Before IT, after IT and after the recovery period, subjects were tested in the laboratory: venous blood sampling, "profile of mood states" (POMS), graded cycling test and a 30-min time trial (TT). Maximal heart rates and lactate concentrations decreased significantly after IT. Peak power output, maximal heart rates and maximal lactate concentrations changed significantly different during the recovery periods. Whereas these parameters were similar to pre-training values after 1-h daily active recovery, 3-h recovery training (REC) led to further decreases. Power output during TT was neither affected by IT nor by both recovery periods. TT-induced increases in cortisol, adrenocorticotropic hormone and prolactin were reduced only after 3-h REC. Total POMS and subscores fatigue and vigor changed significantly different during the recovery periods, a return to pre-training levels after 1 h active recovery and a further deterioration after 3 h REC. It is concluded that low-intensity training of a 1-h duration each day is more appropriate for recovery after an IT period than 3 h.