Developmental and foliation changes due to dysregulation of adenosine kinase in the cerebellum.

Adenosine kinase (ADK), the major adenosine-metabolizing enzyme, plays a key role in brain development and disease. In humans, mutations in the Adk gene have been linked to developmental delay, stunted growth, and intellectual disability. To better understand the role of ADK in brain development, it is important to dissect the specific roles of the two isoforms of the enzyme expressed in the cytoplasm (ADK-S) and cell nucleus (ADK-L). We, therefore, studied brain development in Adk-tg transgenic mice, which only express ADK-S in the absence of ADK-L throughout development. In the mutant animals, we found a reduction in the overall brain, body size, and weight during fetal and postnatal development. As a major developmental abnormality, we found a profound change in the foliation pattern of the cerebellum. Strikingly, our results indicated aberrant Purkinje cells arborization at P9 and accelerated cell death at P6 and P9. We found defects in cerebellar cell proliferation and migration using a bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU)-based cell proliferation assay at postnatal day 7. Our data demonstrate that dysregulation of ADK expression during brain development profoundly affects brain growth and differentiation.

Suppression of phrenic nerve activity as a potential predictor of imminent sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP).

Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) is a leading cause of death in patients with refractory epilepsy. Centrally-mediated respiratory dysfunction has been identified as one of the principal mechanisms responsible for SUDEP. Seizures generate a surge in adenosine release. Elevated adenosine levels suppress breathing. Insufficient metabolic clearance of a seizure-induced adenosine surge might be a precipitating factor in SUDEP. In order to deliver targeted therapies to prevent SUDEP, reliable biomarkers must be identified to enable prompt intervention. Because of the integral role of the phrenic nerve in breathing, we hypothesized that suppression of phrenic nerve activity could be utilized as predictive biomarker for imminent SUDEP. We used a rat model of kainic acid-induced seizures in combination with pharmacological suppression of metabolic adenosine clearance to trigger seizure-induced death in tracheostomized rats. Recordings of EEG, blood pressure, and phrenic nerve activity were made concomitant to the seizure. We found suppression of phrenic nerve burst frequency to 58.9% of baseline (p < 0.001, one-way ANOVA) which preceded seizure-induced death; importantly, irregularities of phrenic nerve activity were partly reversible by the adenosine receptor antagonist caffeine. Suppression of phrenic nerve activity may be a useful biomarker for imminent SUDEP. The ability to reliably detect the onset of SUDEP may be instrumental in the timely administration of potentially lifesaving interventions.

Role of Adenosine in Epilepsy and Seizures.

Adenosine is an endogenous anticonvulsant and neuroprotectant of the brain. Seizure activity produces large quantities of adenosine, and it is this seizure-induced adenosine surge that normally stops a seizure. However, within the context of epilepsy, adenosine plays a wide spectrum of different roles. It not only controls seizures (ictogenesis), but also plays a major role in processes that turn a normal brain into an epileptic brain (epileptogenesis). It is involved in the control of abnormal synaptic plasticity and neurodegeneration and plays a major role in the expression of comorbid symptoms and complications of epilepsy, such as sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP). Given the important role of adenosine in epilepsy, therapeutic strategies are in development with the goal to utilize adenosine augmentation not only for the suppression of seizures but also for disease modification and epilepsy prevention, as well as strategies to block adenosine A2A receptor overfunction associated with neurodegeneration. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the role of adenosine in epilepsy.

Adenosine A1 receptors are crucial in keeping an epileptic focus localized.

Adenosine is an endogenous neuromodulator with anticonvulsant and neuroprotective properties presumably mediated by activation of adenosine A1 receptors (A1Rs). To study the involvement of A1Rs in neuroprotection during epileptogenesis, we induced status epilepticus by a unilateral intrahippocampal kainic acid (KA) injection (1 nmol) in wild-type C57BL/6 and homozygous adenosine A1R knock out (A1R-KO) mice of the same genetic background. Whereas the KA injection caused non-convulsive status epilepticus in wild-type mice, in A1R-KO mice KA induced status epilepticus with severe convulsions and subsequent death of the animals within 5 days. 24 h after KA injection, brains from wild-type C57BL/6 mice were characterized by slight neuronal cell loss confined to the immediate location of the KA injection. In contrast, KA-injected A1R-KO mice displayed massive neuronal cell loss in the ipsilateral hippocampus, and, importantly, the contralateral hippocampus was also affected with significant cell loss in the hilus and in the CA1 region of the pyramidal cell layer. We conclude that activation of A1 receptors by ambient adenosine is crucial in keeping epileptic foci localized. These results open up a new dimension of the A1 receptor's role in controlling excitotoxic cell death and further demonstrate its importance in preventing the progression of status epilepticus to lethal consequences.

The support of adenosine release from adenosine kinase deficient ES cells by silk substrates.

Adenosine kinase deficient (Adk-/-) embryonic stem cells (ESCs) encapsulated in synthetic polymers have previously been shown to provide therapeutic adenosine release and transient seizure suppression in epileptic rats. Here we explored the utility of biopolymer-substrates to promote long-term adenosine release from Adk-/- ESCs. Three different substrates were studied: (1) type I collagen (Col-1), (2) silk-fibroin (SF), and (3) poly(L-ornithine) (PO) coated tissue culture plastic. Adk-/- or wild type (wt) ESC-derived glial precursor cells were seeded on the substrates and cultured either in proliferation medium containing growth factors or in differentiation medium devoid of growth factors. In proliferation medium cell proliferation was higher and metabolic activity lower on Col-1 and PO substrates as compared to SF. Cells from both genotypes readily differentiated into astrocytes after growth factor removal on all substrates. Adk-/- cells cultured on biopolymers released significantly more adenosine than their wt counterparts at all developmental stages. Adenosine release was similar on SF and PO substrates and the amounts released from Adk-/- cells (>20 ng/ml) were considered to be of therapeutic relevance. Taken together, these results suggest that silk matrices are particularly suitable biomaterials for ESC encapsulation and for the design of adenosine releasing bioincubators for the treatment of epilepsy.

Astrogliosis in epilepsy leads to overexpression of adenosine kinase, resulting in seizure aggravation.

Adenosine kinase (ADK) is considered to be the key regulator of the brain's endogenous anticonvulsant, adenosine. In adult brain, ADK is primarily expressed in a subpopulation of astrocytes and striking upregulation of ADK in these cells has been associated with astrogliosis after kainic acid-induced status epilepticus (KASE) in the kainic acid mouse model of temporal lobe epilepsy. To investigate the causal relationship between KASE-induced astrogliosis, upregulation of ADK and seizure activity, we have developed a novel mouse model [the Adktm1(-/-)-Tg(UbiAdk) mouse] lacking the endogenous astrocytic enzyme due to a targeted disruption of the endogenous gene, but containing an Adk transgene under the control of a human ubiquitin promoter. Mutant Adktm1(-/-)-Tg(UbiAdk) mice were characterized by increased brain ADK activity and constitutive overexpression of transgenic ADK throughout the brain, with particularly high levels in hippocampal pyramidal neurons. This ADK overexpression was associated with increased baseline levels of locomotion. Most importantly, two-thirds of the mutant mice analysed exhibited spontaneous seizure activity in the hippocampus and cortex. This was the direct consequence of transgene expression, since this seizure activity could be prevented by systemic application of the ADK inhibitor 5-iodotubercidin. Intrahippocampal injection of kainate in the mutant mice resulted in astrogliosis to the same extent as that observed in wild-type mice despite the absence of endogenous astrocytic ADK. Therefore, KASE-induced upregulation of endogenous ADK in wild-type mice is a consequence of astrogliosis. However, seizures in kainic acid-injected mutants displayed increased intra-ictal spike frequency compared with wild-type mice, indicating that, once epilepsy is established, increased levels of ADK aggravate seizure severity. We therefore conclude that therapeutic strategies that augment the adenosine system after astrogliosis-induced upregulation of ADK constitute a neurochemical rationale for the prevention of seizures in epilepsy.

Gene dose-dependent alterations in extraneuronal serotonin but not dopamine in mice with reduced serotonin transporter expression.

Serotonin (5-HT) plays an integral regulatory role in mood, anxiety, cognition, appetite and aggressive behavior. Many therapeutic and illicit drugs that modulate these functions act at the serotonin transporter (SERT), thus a mouse model with reduced transporter expression was created to further investigate the effects of differential serotonin reuptake. In the present study, in vivo microdialysis was used to determine homeostatic alterations in extracellular 5-HT levels in unanesthetized SERT knockout mice. SERT(-/-) mice had significantly higher levels of basal dialysate 5-HT than SERT(+/+) mice in striatum and frontal cortex. In addition, although gene-specific increases in 5-HT were evident, neuroadaptive alterations in dialysate dopamine levels were not detected in striatum. Zero net flux microdialysis was utilized to further investigate alterations in extracellular 5-HT. Using this method, a gene dose-dependent increase in extraneuronal 5-HT was observed in striatum (2.8 +/- 1, 9.4 +/- 1 and 18 +/- 3 nM) and frontal cortex (1.4 +/- 0.4, 3.5 +/- 0.9 and 14 +/- 1 nM) in SERT(+/+), SERT(+/-) and SERT(-/-) mice, respectively. Potassium stimulation revealed greater depolarization-induced increases in striatal 5-HT but not dopamine in SERT(-/-) mice. Furthermore, dialysate 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) levels were reduced in striatum in a gene dose-dependent manner, while DOPAC was unchanged in SERT knockout mice. Finally, determination of monoamine oxidase (MAO) activity revealed no significant differences in KM or Vmax of type-A or type-B isozymes indicating that alterations in SERT expression do not cause adaptive changes in the activities of these key catabolic enzymes. Overall, these results demonstrate that constitutive reductions in SERT are associated with increases in 5-HT in the extracellular signaling space in the absence of changes in dopamine neurochemistry. Furthermore, use of zero net flux microdialysis appears warranted in investigations of serotonergic synaptic function where modest changes in extracellular 5-HT are thought to occur in response to altered uptake.

Engineering embryonic stem cell derived glia for adenosine delivery.

Based on the anticonvulsant and neuroprotective properties of adenosine, and based on the long-term survival potential of stem cell derived brain implants, adenosine releasing stem cells may constitute a novel tool for the treatment of epilepsy. Pluripotency and unlimited self-renewal make embryonic stem (ES) cells a particularly versatile donor source for cell transplantation. With the aim to test the feasibility of a stem cell-based delivery system for adenosine, both alleles of adenosine kinase (ADK), the major adenosine-metabolizing enzyme, were disrupted by homologous recombination in ES cells. Adk-/- ES cells were subjected to a glial differentiation protocol and, as a result, gave rise to proliferating glial precursors, which could be further differentiated into mature astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. Thus, a lack of ADK does not compromise the glial differentiation potential of ES cells. The Adk-/- ES cells yielded glial populations with an adenosine release of up to 40.1 +/- 6.0 ng per 10(5) cells per hour, an amount considered to be sufficient for seizure suppression. Our findings indicate that Adk-/- ES cells constitute a potential source for therapeutic adenosine releasing grafts.