Development and Pragmatic Evaluation of a Rapid Response Team.

In response to national and local drivers, a clinical emergency response system (CERS) incorporating an intensivist-led rapid response team (RRT) was implemented at a Sydney (Australia) hospital. The authors present a pragmatic evaluation of the 5 years since this major initiative was commenced. A "partner not conquer" philosophy was adopted. Implementation of the RRT was based on a collaborative pragmatic quality improvement approach. A team of intensive care specialist trained medical doctors (n = 2) and clinical nurse consultants (n = 2) set up the service with executive support and funding. Roles and responsibilities were clearly detailed, reinforcing a positive, partnership-driven culture. A constantly evolving education strategy was a critical element of implementation and maintenance. Ongoing evaluation includes process and patient outcome data. Serious patient deterioration-related incidents have decreased significantly (from 7 to 1 per year) and the RRT has been universally accepted by clinicians. Key lessons learned include the need for specific protected funding, a partnership approach ensuring hospital clinicians retain responsibility of patient treatment, ongoing education and reinforcement, and strong nursing leadership. However, generalizations cannot be made about the implementation of the CERS. It is important to consider context; "one size does not fit all."

High-stakes assessment of the non-technical skills of critical care trainees using simulation: feasibility, acceptability and reliability.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the use of high-fidelity simulation for summative high-stakes assessment of intensive care trainees, focusing on non-technical skills (NTS), testing feasibility and acceptability of simulation assessment, and the reliability of two NTS rating scales. DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Prospective observational study of senior intensive care trainees in a simulated specialist examination. METHODS: Participants undertook a simulated patient management scenario and were assessed using two rating scales: the Anaesthesia Non-technical Skills (ANTS) scale and the Ottawa Global Rating Scale (GRS). Assessors were trained, currently active, high-stakes examiners. Participants also completed a survey on simulation-based summative assessment. OUTCOME MEASURES: The inter-rater reliability of two rating scales for NTS assessment. We evaluated the feasibility of simulation-based assessment, and used survey results to assess acceptability to participants. RESULTS: Simulation assessment was feasible. Participants considered simulation-based high-stakes assessment to be acceptable and felt their scenario performance was reflective of real-world performance. Participants identified a need for debriefing following scenario-based assessment. Inter-rater reliability was fair for the ANTS and Ottawa GRS scores (intra-class correlation coefficient, 0.39 and 0.42, respectively). There was only fair agreement between raters for an NTS pass or fail (weighted kappa, 0.32) and for a technical skills pass or fail (weighted kappa, 0.36). CONCLUSIONS: Summative high-stakes assessment using a single simulated scenario was feasible and acceptable to senior intensive care trainees. The low inter-rater reliability for the ANTS and Ottawa GRS rating scales and for pass or fail discrimination may limit its incorporation into an existing examination format.

Bronchopleural fistula: an update for intensivists.

Bronchopleural fistula is a potentially fatal condition that may result after a variety of clinical conditions, most commonly after pulmonary resection. Either surgical or bronchoscopic repair is required to definitively correct these lesions, though a small number may resolve spontaneously with optimal ventilatory care and other options available to an intensivist in the management of this complex condition. The successful management of a bronchopleural fistula depends on formulating a treatment strategy tailored to individual patient needs.

The association between preoperative eGFR and outcomes in cardiac surgical patients.

AIM: To study the relationship between preoperative renal function and outcomes in patients undergoing cardiac surgery. DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: A retrospective descriptive study was performed on all patients who had coronary artery bypass, cardiac valve surgery and/or aortic arch surgery at a tertiary-referral hospital between January 2002 and December 2007. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Clinical and demographic variables were compared across renal dysfunction categories, defined by glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) calculated using the modified Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) equation. Logistic regression was used to assess the association between eGFR and outcomes, primarily in-hospital mortality. RESULTS: 7440 patients were included, with a mean age of 64 years and overall mortality of 1.6%. Across worsening renal function states, excluding patients receiving dialysis, patients were older, more likely to be women and to have comorbidities (particularly diabetes and vascular disease), as well as ventricular dysfunction, and to require emergency or more complex surgery. Unadjusted outcomes, as well as univariate and multivariate analysis, consistently demonstrated that odds ratios for adverse events increased with worsening renal function, even at moderate levels of dysfunction. CONCLUSIONS: Preoperative renal dysfunction is independently associated with mortality after cardiac surgery. This is consistent with the accumulating evidence supporting preoperative renal dysfunction as a powerful predictor of adverse outcomes.

Methods and preliminary results for a data linkage project to determine long-term survival after intensive care unit admission.

AIMS: To describe a local data linkage project to match hospital data with the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) National Death Index (NDI) to assess long-term outcomes of intensive care unit patients. METHODS: Data were obtained from hospital intensive care and cardiac surgery databases on all patients aged 18 years and over admitted to either of two intensive care units at a tertiary-referral hospital between 1 January 1994 and 31 December 2005. Date of death was obtained from the AIHW NDI by probabilistic software matching, in addition to manual checking through hospital databases and other sources. Survival was calculated from time of ICU admission, with a censoring date of 14 February 2007. Data for patients with multiple hospital admissions requiring intensive care were analysed only from the first admission. Summary and descriptive statistics were used for preliminary data analysis. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis was used to analyse factors determining long-term survival. RESULTS: During the study period, 21,415 unique patients had 22,552 hospital admissions that included an ICU admission; 19,058 surgical procedures were performed with a total of 20,092 ICU admissions. There were 4936 deaths. Median follow-up was 6.2 years, totalling 134,203 patient years. The casemix was predominantly cardiac surgery (80%), followed by cardiac medical (6%), and other medical (4%). The unadjusted survival at 1, 5 and 10 years was 97%, 84% and 70%, respectively. The 1-year survival ranged from 97% for cardiac surgery to 36% for cardiac arrest. An APACHE II score was available for 16,877 patients. In those discharged alive from hospital, the 1, 5 and 10-year survival varied with discharge location. CONCLUSIONS: ICU-based linkage projects are feasible to determine long-term outcomes of ICU patients.

The S.T.A.B. trial-standardized testing of artificial blood: a comparative study of various products that may be used as artificial blood for high fidelity simulation training in the critical care setting.

AIM: In the current climate of medical education, there is an ever-increasing demand for and emphasis on simulation as both a teaching and training tool. The objective of our study was to compare the realism and practicality of a number of artificial blood products that could be used for high-fidelity simulation. METHOD: A literature and internet search was performed and 15 artificial blood products were identified from a variety of sources. One product was excluded due to its potential toxicity risks. Five observers, blinded to the products, performed two assessments on each product using an evaluation tool with 14 predefined criteria including color, consistency, clotting, and staining potential to manikin skin and clothing. Each criterion was rated using a five-point Likert scale. The products were left for 24 hours, both refrigerated and at room temperature, and then reassessed. Statistical analysis was performed to identify the most suitable products, and both inter- and intra-rater variability were examined. RESULTS: Three products scored consistently well with all five assessors, with one product in particular scoring well in almost every criterion. This highest-rated product had a mean rating of 3.6 of 5.0 (95% posterior Interval 3.4-3.7). Inter-rater variability was minor with average ratings varying from 3.0 to 3.4 between the highest and lowest scorer. Intrarater variability was negligible with good agreement between first and second rating as per weighted kappa scores (K = 0.67). CONCLUSION: The most realistic and practical form of artificial blood identified was a commercial product called KD151 Flowing Blood Syrup. It was found to be not only realistic in appearance but practical in terms of storage and stain removal.

Moulage in high-fidelity simulation-a chest wall burn escharotomy model for visual realism and as an educational tool.

INTRODUCTION: There is a paucity of literature pertaining to the role and techniques of moulage for creating high-fidelity medical simulations. As part of an Intensive Care Crisis Event Management Course, simulation of an extensive torso burn was desired. The aim of the moulage was to enhance the realism of the scenario but additionally to enable a chest wall escharotomy to be performed. METHODS: A simple step-wise technique for preparing a chest wall burn moulage that may be fitted to mannequins of all sizes and shapes is described. RESULTS: Utilization of the chest wall moulage as part of an overall strategy to prepare mannequins' for a severe burns scenario is detailed. CONCLUSIONS: In the case of the chest wall burn model, moulage was used as more than a visual realism enhancing strategy-it served as an educational tool in its own right, permitting demonstration of a procedure performed infrequently outside the walls of major burns centers.

Independent lung ventilation in the intensive care unit: desperate measure or viable treatment option?

Independent lung ventilation is often used intra-operatively but has also been used in intensive care in a variety of clinical situations. Ventilating lungs independently of each other may be life-saving when a lung abnormality is predominantly unilateral. We successfully used independent lung ventilation in two patients, who benefited from anatomical and physiological separation of their lungs. These cases remind intensivists that independent lung ventilation is a viable option to be considered in cases of pulmonary abnormality when conventional mechanical ventilation is deleterious.

Successful use of recombinant factor VII in massive hemoptysis due to community-acquired pneumonia.

Recombinant activated factor VII (rFVIIa) is a powerful hemostatic agent developed for use in hemophilia. It has been used increasingly in life-threatening hemorrhage in a variety of other settings in which conventional medical or surgical therapy is unsuccessful. This report describes the successful use of rFVIIa for pulmonary hemorrhage due to a focal bleeding source in a regional hospital where bronchial artery embolization or surgery were not available. rFVIIa may be a useful temporizing measure in the unstable patient with pulmonary hemorrhage without coagulopathic bleeding when conventional treatment is not immediately available.

Profiling patients suspected of drug seeking in an adult emergency department.

OBJECTIVES: (i) To profile ED consultations where drug seeking is considered; (ii) to clarify if an Australian patient cohort shares the characteristics identified in the literature, that is, high rate of psychiatric, chronic pain and drug dependency problems; and (iii) to quantify the extent of missed organic disease in suspected drug-seeking presentations. METHODS: Prospective descriptive study with an initial enrolment period of 3 months, follow up at 3 and 5 years. Tertiary hospital ED doctors voluntarily identified suspected drug-seeking behaviour. Patients' demographic information, past history, presenting features, investigations, management and missed diagnoses of organic pathology were collected. Recurrent presentations of drug seeking, self-harming, psychiatric, chronic pain and drug dependency complaints were documented. RESULTS: Thirty-seven presentations (31 patients) of 10,958 total attendances were analysed. All patients were less than 65 years. Twenty-one patients (68%, 95% confidence interval [CI 49.7-85.8]) were on unemployment or disability pension. Twenty-six presentations (70% [95% CI 54.2-86.3]) described psychiatric problems, whereas three presentations (8% [95% CI 0.0-18.3]) had chronic pain and 10 presentations (27% [95% CI 11.4-42.7]) had drug dependency problems. Twenty-six patients (84% [95% CI 69.3-98.4]) recurrently presented with self-harming and drug-seeking behaviour at 3 years. The risk of missing organic pathology was 8/37 (22% [95% CI 7.0-36.2]). CONCLUSIONS: Further characterization of this population would help accurate diagnosis of this aberrant behaviour and decrease the risk of missing organic pathology. The management of frequently presenting patients should prompt formulation of departmental plans to effectively assess and manage these people.

Diagnosing drug-seeking behaviour in an adult emergency department.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of the present study were to determine factors used by ED doctors to diagnose drug seeking and their attitude towards management of this patient group. METHODS: Prospective, descriptive study, of doctors working in a tertiary hospital ED. Doctors voluntarily identified patients they suspected were drug seeking and completed a written survey. RESULTS: Thirty-seven surveys were completed for presentations involving 31 patients. A patient's specific request for narcotics, previous documented episodes of suspected drug seeking, an unwillingness to try simple analgesia and demanding or aggressive behaviour were the most frequently used factors for diagnosing drug seeking. These factors are similar to, but not the same, as the criteria in the literature. Doctors commonly found consultations involving drug seeking to be unsatisfying. CONCLUSIONS: Factors, such as those used by doctors in the present study, should not be used as diagnostic markers. Further study is warranted in order to improve the effectiveness of consultations involving drug seeking.

Fatal muscarinic syndrome after eating wild mushrooms.

Death from mushroom poisoning in Australia is rare and usually due to liver failure produced by Amanita phalloides. We report a 53-year-old woman in Queensland who died from an acute muscarinic syndrome 10 hours after eating mushrooms belonging to the genus Rubinoboletus. To our knowledge, this is the first death in Australia caused by non-amatoxin-producing mushrooms. It highlights the need for awareness of non-amatoxin-producing mushrooms as potentially lethal.

The utility of the history and clinical signs of poisoning in childhood: a prospective study.

The authors aimed to evaluate the utility of the history and clinical signs for predicting ingestion of poisons in children. A prospective cohort study was performed of all patients presenting with suspected poisoning to a pediatric emergency department over a 13-month period. Clinical data were collected on a preformatted consultation sheet. Urine drug screens (UDS) were analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Serum toxicologic tests were performed when clinically indicated. The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive values (PPV), and negative predictive values (NPV) of the history and clinical signs were calculated, first using UDS and, second, using all available toxicologic tests as the gold standards. Of 249 patients, 110 (46%) had a UDS performed. The purported poison ingested was potentially identifiable by GC/MS in 57 (52%) of these UDS. Only the results from these 57 UDS were included in our statistical analysis. Overall, the suspected poison was identified in 33 (58%) of the 57 UDS. Similarly, in the less than 5 years age subgroup, 28 (56%) of 50 UDS were positive. Odor on the breath (PPV 100%), followed by symptoms consistent with poisoning (PPV 92%) and presence of poison on clothes (PPV 86%) were the most useful predictors of a positive UDS. Similar results were obtained when all available toxicologic tests were used as the gold standard. The best clinical predictors of poisonous ingestion in children were found to be odor on the breath, symptoms consistent with poisoning, and presence of poison on the patient's clothes. Approximately 40% of children who present with poisoning have not been exposed to the putative toxin.