Uncertainty and Posttraumatic Stress: Differences Between Mothers and Fathers of Infants with Disorders of Sex Development.

Parents of children with disorders of sex development (DSD) report significant psychological distress, including posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS), with mothers consistently reporting higher rates of psychological distress than fathers. However, psychological factors contributing to PTSS in both parents are not well understood. The present study sought to fill this gap in knowledge by examining PTSS and illness uncertainty, a known predictor of psychological distress, in parents of children recently diagnosed with DSD. Participants were 52 mothers (Mage = 32.55 years, SD = 5.08) and 41 fathers (Mage = 35.53 years, SD = 6.78) of 53 infants (Mage = 9.09 months, SD = 6.19) with DSD and associated atypical genital development. Participants were recruited as part of a larger, multisite study assessing parents' psychosocial response to their child's diagnosis of DSD. Parents completed measures of illness uncertainty and PTSS. Mothers reported significantly greater levels of PTSS, but not illness uncertainty, than fathers, and were more likely than fathers to report clinical levels of PTSS (21.2% compared to 7.3%). Hierarchical regression revealed that parent sex, undiagnosed or unclassified DSD status, and illness uncertainty were each associated with PTSS. The overall model accounted for 23.5% of the variance associated with PTSS. Interventions targeting illness uncertainty may be beneficial for parents of children with newly diagnosed DSD.

Parent-Rated Severity of Illness and Anxiety among Caregivers of Children Born with a Disorder of Sex Development Including Ambiguous Genitalia.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Parents of children born with disorders of sex development (DSD) often experience anxiety, but risk factors, including parental perception of the severity of their child's DSD, have not been examined. We hypothesized that severity of illness (SOI) ratings would relate to parental anxiety, and would be higher for parents of children with a potentially life-threatening DSD (e.g., 21-hydroxylase deficiency). METHODS: Eighty-nine parents (Mage = 33.0, 56.2% mothers) of 51 children (Mage in months = 8.7) with a DSD including ambiguous genitalia were recruited from 12 specialized DSD clinics. Parents completed questionnaires prior to genitoplasty, 6 months post-genitoplasty, and 12 months post-genitoplasty (if completed). Data were analyzed with linear mixed modeling. RESULTS: Parental anxiety decreased over time, χ2(1) = 10.14, p < 0.01. A positive relationship between SOI and anxiety was found, with SOI being a strong predictor of anxiety (b = 0.53, p < 0.01; χ2[1] = 5.33, p < 0.05). An SOI by time interaction indicated SOI had an increasing effect on anxiety over time, b = 0.06, p < 0.05; χ2(1) = 6.30, p < 0.05. There was no diagnosis by SOI interaction. CONCLUSION: Parental anxiety decreased over time, but those with higher SOI ratings reported greater initial anxiety followed by slower resolution over time. Underlying etiology of DSD had no effect on the relationship between SOI and anxiety.

Psychological Adjustment of Parents of Children Born with Atypical Genitalia 1 Year after Genitoplasty.

PURPOSE: We examined the psychological adjustment of parents of children born with moderate to severe genital atypia 12 months after their child underwent genitoplasty. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Parents were recruited longitudinally from a multicenter collaboration of 10 pediatric hospitals with specialty care for children with disorders/differences of sex development and/or congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Parents completed measures of depressive and anxious symptoms, illness uncertainty, quality of life, posttraumatic stress and decisional regret. RESULTS: Compared to levels of distress at baseline (before genitoplasty) and 6 months after genitoplasty, data from 25 mothers and 20 fathers indicated significant improvements in all psychological distress variables. However, a subset of parents continued endorsing clinically relevant distress. Some level of decisional regret was endorsed by 28% of parents, although the specific decision that caused regret was not specified. CONCLUSIONS: Overall the majority of parents were coping well 1 year after their child underwent genitoplasty. Level of decisional regret was related to having a bachelor's level of education, increased levels of illness uncertainty preoperatively and persistent illness uncertainty at 12 months after genitoplasty but was unrelated to postoperative complications.

Changes in levels of parental distress after their child with atypical genitalia undergoes genitoplasty.

BACKGROUND: The birth of a child with a disorder of sex development (DSD) and atypical genitalia can be traumatizing and isolating for families. Parents of children with DSD are at risk for increased levels of psychological distress, including depression, anxiety, illness uncertainty (IU), post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS), and impairments in quality of life (QOL). Our previous report indicated that although the majority of parents of children with atypical genitalia were coping well prior to the child's genitoplasty, approximately 25% of them reported experiencing some type of psychological distress. OBJECTIVE: The current study sought to examine the trajectory of parental psychological distress prior to, and 6 months after their child underwent genitoplasty. METHODS: Parents were recruited as part of an ongoing, prospective, multi-site study involving 10 pediatric hospitals with specialized care for children with atypical genitalia. Results from 49 parents (27 mothers, 22 fathers) of 28 children (17 female sex of rearing, 11 male sex of rearing) born with atypical genitalia (Prader rating of 3-5 in 46,XX DSD or by a Quigley rating of 3-6 in 46,XY DSD or 45,XO/46,XY) were included in the study. RESULTS: There were no significant changes in level of depressive or anxious symptoms or quality of life between baseline and 6-month post-operative follow-up, although mothers continued to report significantly higher levels of depressive symptoms than fathers, and as a group, these parents reported lower QOL than published norms. The level of PTSS significantly decreased for all parents, suggesting that parents may have come through the acute stress phase associated with their child's diagnosis. Finally, while there were no significant changes in IU over the time period, the level of IU for parents of boys actually increased, while parents of girls reported no change (Figure). CONCLUSION: Six months after their child has undergone genitoplasty, the majority of parents report minimal levels of psychological distress. However, a subset of these parents continue to experience significant distress related to their child's diagnosis. Specifically, parents of boys appear to be at increased risk for difficulties, which may be related to either the lack of clinical diagnosis for almost half of these children or the necessity of two-stage surgeries for the majority of them. We will continue collecting data on these families to better understand the trajectory of these adjustment variables.

Urinary continence outcomes following vaginoplasty in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia.

BACKGROUND: Feminizing genitoplasty techniques have diversified to encompass the spectrum of atypical genitalia in 46,XX congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) patients. However, long-term outcomes evaluating postoperative continence following complex vaginoplasty remain scarce. OBJECTIVE: The aim was to review our surgical experience and assess postoperative urinary continence outcomes in CAH patients following complex, primary vaginoplasty. STUDY DESIGN: We retrospectively reviewed CAH patients who underwent complex, primary vaginoplasty at a single center by a single surgeon from 1996 to 2013. We collected data on clinical characteristics, surgical techniques and postoperative urinary continence outcomes. In patients who had reached toilet-training age, continence outcomes were reviewed. RESULTS: Twenty-four patients met the inclusion criteria. The median age at the time of surgery was 8 months (interquartile range [IQR] 1 year-6 months). The median length of follow up was 6 years (IQR 10 years-3 years). These patients required complex reconstruction because of more extensive virilization: total urogenital mobilization (TUM, 10), pull-through vaginoplasty (9), partial urogenital mobilization (3), or pull-through vaginoplasty with partial urogenital mobilization (2). After surgery, 15 out of 24 (62.5%) reported age appropriate toilet-training without further complaints. Seven (29.2%) patients reported daytime incontinence or enuresis that resolved with conservative management. Two patients reported day and night incontinence requiring urethral bulking procedures following TUM. DISCUSSION: Twenty-two (91.7%) of our patients achieved continence without further surgical intervention. Of these patients, the TUM patients had serious incontinence issues. Our study represents a review of clinically significant cases from the female CAH population. The limitations of our study include a relatively small sample size and retrospective design. CONCLUSION: Females with CAH and urogenital virilization most often achieved age appropriate toilet-training following vaginoplasty. Daytime incontinence and enuresis resolved without operative management in the vast majority of cases. TUM carries a risk of severe incontinence and may require further procedures to achieve urinary continence.

Nerve Sparing Clitoroplasty is an Option for Adolescent and Adult Female Patients with Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia and Clitoral Pain following Prior Clitoral Recession or Incomplete Reduction.

PURPOSE: In the past many female patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia and atypical genitalia were surgically treated with clitoral recession or incomplete reduction of erectile bodies. We report the results of repeat clitoral surgery performed for clitoral pain or enlargement using a nerve sparing reduction clitoroplasty technique. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We identified 6 female patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia who had undergone prior clitoral recession or incomplete reduction elsewhere. They then presented to our center with clitoral pain or enlargement, where they were treated with nerve sparing clitoroplasty between 2000 and 2010. We collected patient reported data relating to clitoral sensation and sexual function outcomes. RESULTS: Mean ± SD age at evaluation for repeat clitoral surgery was 21 ± 7 years and mean age at clitoroplasty was 22 ± 8 years. Median postoperative followup was 9 months (IQR 32-6). All patients showed improvement with resolution of clitoral pain or enlargement. CONCLUSIONS: Clitoral pain and enlargement upon arousal can be a major concern for women with clitoromegaly and congenital adrenal hyperplasia after clitoral recession is performed. Our series suggests that clitoral recession or incomplete reduction in childhood may be an inadequate initial solution in the congenital adrenal hyperplasia population due to the potential for future androgen elevation and the possibility of later symptom development. In addition we found that patients may be successfully treated with nerve sparing clitoroplasty, resulting in resolution of pain and ability to engage in sexual activity.

Characterizing Early Psychosocial Functioning of Parents of Children with Moderate to Severe Genital Ambiguity due to Disorders of Sex Development.

PURPOSE: We examined the psychosocial characteristics of parents of children with disorders of sex development at early presentation to a disorders of sex development clinic. Parental anxiety, depression, quality of life, illness uncertainty and posttraumatic stress symptoms were assessed. Additionally we evaluated the relationship of assigned child gender to parental outcomes. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 51 parents of children with ambiguous or atypical genitalia were recruited from 7 centers specializing in treatment of disorders of sex development. At initial assessment no child had undergone genitoplasty. Parents completed the Cosmetic Appearance Rating Scale, Beck Anxiety Inventory, Beck Depression Inventory, SF-36, Parent Perception of Uncertainty Scale and Impact of Event Scale-Revised. RESULTS: A large percentage of parents (54.5%) were dissatisfied with the genital appearance of their child, and a small but significant percentage reported symptoms of anxiety, depression, diminished quality of life, uncertainty and posttraumatic stress. Few gender differences emerged. CONCLUSIONS: Although many parents function well, a subset experience significant psychological distress around the time of diagnosis of a disorder of sex development in their child. Early screening to assess the need for psychosocial interventions is warranted.