Translational control in the spinal cord regulates gene expression and pain hypersensitivity in the chronic phase of neuropathic pain.

Sensitization of spinal nociceptive circuits plays a crucial role in neuropathic pain. This sensitization depends on new gene expression that is primarily regulated via transcriptional and translational control mechanisms. The relative roles of these mechanisms in regulating gene expression in the clinically relevant chronic phase of neuropathic pain are not well understood. Here, we show that changes in gene expression in the spinal cord during the chronic phase of neuropathic pain are substantially regulated at the translational level. Downregulating spinal translation at the chronic phase alleviated pain hypersensitivity. Cell-type-specific profiling revealed that spinal inhibitory neurons exhibited greater changes in translation after peripheral nerve injury compared to excitatory neurons. Notably, increasing translation selectively in all inhibitory neurons or parvalbumin-positive (PV+) interneurons, but not excitatory neurons, promoted mechanical pain hypersensitivity. Furthermore, increasing translation in PV+ neurons decreased their intrinsic excitability and spiking activity, whereas reducing translation in spinal PV+ neurons prevented the nerve injury-induced decrease in excitability. Thus, translational control mechanisms in the spinal cord, particularly in inhibitory neurons, play a role in mediating neuropathic pain hypersensitivity.

4E-BP1-dependent translation in nociceptors controls mechanical hypersensitivity via TRIM32/type I interferon signaling.

Activation of the mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) contributes to the development of chronic pain. However, the specific mechanisms by which mTORC1 causes hypersensitivity remain elusive. The eukaryotic initiation factor 4E-binding protein 1 (4E-BP1) is a key mTORC1 downstream effector that represses translation initiation. Here, we show that nociceptor-specific deletion of 4E-BP1, mimicking activation of mTORC1-dependent translation, is sufficient to cause mechanical hypersensitivity. Using translating ribosome affinity purification in nociceptors lacking 4E-BP1, we identified a pronounced translational up-regulation of tripartite motif-containing protein 32 (TRIM32), an E3 ubiquitin ligase that promotes interferon signaling. Down-regulation of TRIM32 in nociceptors or blocking type I interferon signaling reversed the mechanical hypersensitivity in mice lacking 4E-BP1. Furthermore, nociceptor-specific ablation of TRIM32 alleviated mechanical hypersensitivity caused by tissue inflammation. These results show that mTORC1 in nociceptors promotes hypersensitivity via 4E-BP1-dependent up-regulation of TRIM32/interferon signaling and identify TRIM32 as a therapeutic target in inflammatory pain.

Excitatory neuron-specific suppression of the integrated stress response contributes to autism-related phenotypes in fragile X syndrome.

Dysregulation of protein synthesis is one of the key mechanisms underlying autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, the role of a major pathway controlling protein synthesis, the integrated stress response (ISR), in ASD remains poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate that the main arm of the ISR, eIF2α phosphorylation (p-eIF2α), is suppressed in excitatory, but not inhibitory, neurons in a mouse model of fragile X syndrome (FXS; Fmr1-/y). We further show that the decrease in p-eIF2α is mediated via activation of mTORC1. Genetic reduction of p-eIF2α only in excitatory neurons is sufficient to increase general protein synthesis and cause autism-like behavior. In Fmr1-/y mice, restoration of p-eIF2α solely in excitatory neurons reverses elevated protein synthesis and rescues autism-related phenotypes. Thus, we reveal a previously unknown causal relationship between excitatory neuron-specific translational control via the ISR pathway, general protein synthesis, and core phenotypes reminiscent of autism in a mouse model of FXS.

Reversal of memory and autism-related phenotypes in Tsc2+/- mice via inhibition of Nlgn1.

Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) is a rare monogenic disorder co-diagnosed with high rates of autism and is caused by loss of function mutations in the TSC1 or TSC2 genes. A key pathway hyperactivated in TSC is the mammalian/mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1), which regulates cap-dependent mRNA translation. We previously demonstrated that exaggerated cap-dependent translation leads to autism-related phenotypes and increased mRNA translation and protein expression of Neuroligin 1 (Nlgn1) in mice. Inhibition of Nlgn1 expression reversed social behavior deficits in mice with increased cap-dependent translation. Herein, we report elevated translation of Nlgn1 mRNA and an increase in its protein expression. Genetic or pharmacological inhibition of Nlgn1 expression in Tsc2 +/- mice rescued impaired hippocampal mGluR-LTD, contextual discrimination and social behavior deficits in Tsc2 +/- mice, without correcting mTORC1 hyperactivation. Thus, we demonstrate that reduction of Nlgn1 expression in Tsc2 +/- mice is a new therapeutic strategy for TSC and potentially other neurodevelopmental disorders.

eIF4E phosphorylation recruits ß-catenin to mRNA cap and promotes Wnt pathway translation in dentate gyrus LTP maintenance.

The mRNA cap-binding protein, eukaryotic initiation factor 4E (eIF4E), is crucial for translation and regulated by Ser209 phosphorylation. However, the biochemical and physiological role of eIF4E phosphorylation in translational control of long-term synaptic plasticity is unknown. We demonstrate that phospho-ablated Eif4eS209A Knockin mice are profoundly impaired in dentate gyrus LTP maintenance in vivo, whereas basal perforant path-evoked transmission and LTP induction are intact. mRNA cap-pulldown assays show that phosphorylation is required for synaptic activity-induced removal of translational repressors from eIF4E, allowing initiation complex formation. Using ribosome profiling, we identified selective, phospho-eIF4E-dependent translation of the Wnt signaling pathway in LTP. Surprisingly, the canonical Wnt effector, ß-catenin, was massively recruited to the eIF4E cap complex following LTP induction in wild-type, but not Eif4eS209A, mice. These results demonstrate a critical role for activity-evoked eIF4E phosphorylation in dentate gyrus LTP maintenance, remodeling of the mRNA cap-binding complex, and specific translation of the Wnt pathway.

Ribosomes in RNA Granules Are Stalled on mRNA Sequences That Are Consensus Sites for FMRP Association.

Local translation in neurons is partly mediated by the reactivation of stalled polysomes. Stalled polysomes may be enriched within the granule fraction, defined as the pellet of sucrose gradients used to separate polysomes from monosomes. The mechanism of how elongating ribosomes are reversibly stalled and unstalled on mRNAs is still unclear. In the present study, we characterize the ribosomes in the granule fraction using immunoblotting, cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM), and ribosome profiling. We find that this fraction, isolated from 5-d-old rat brains of both sexes, is enriched in proteins implicated in stalled polysome function, such as the fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP) and Up-frameshift mutation 1 homologue. Cryo-EM analysis of ribosomes in this fraction indicates they are stalled, mainly in the hybrid state. Ribosome profiling of this fraction reveals (1) an enrichment for footprint reads of mRNAs that interact with FMRPs and are associated with stalled polysomes, (2) an abundance of footprint reads derived from mRNAs of cytoskeletal proteins implicated in neuronal development, and (3) increased ribosome occupancy on mRNAs encoding RNA binding proteins. Compared with those usually found in ribosome profiling studies, the footprint reads were longer and were mapped to reproducible peaks in the mRNAs. These peaks were enriched in motifs previously associated with mRNAs cross-linked to FMRP in vivo, independently linking the ribosomes in the granule fraction to the ribosomes associated with FMRP in the cell. The data supports a model in which specific sequences in mRNAs act to stall ribosomes during translation elongation in neurons.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Neurons send mRNAs to synapses in RNA granules, where they are not translated until an appropriate stimulus is given. Here, we characterize a granule fraction obtained from sucrose gradients and show that polysomes in this fraction are stalled on consensus sequences in a specific state of translational arrest with extended ribosome-protected fragments. This finding greatly increases our understanding of how neurons use specialized mechanisms to regulate translation and suggests that many studies on neuronal translation may need to be re-evaluated to include the large fraction of neuronal polysomes found in the pellet of sucrose gradients used to isolate polysomes.

Parvalbumin interneuron loss mediates repeated anesthesia-induced memory deficits in mice.

Repeated or prolonged, but not short-term, general anesthesia during the early postnatal period causes long-lasting impairments in memory formation in various species. The mechanisms underlying long-lasting impairment in cognitive function are poorly understood. Here, we show that repeated general anesthesia in postnatal mice induces preferential apoptosis and subsequent loss of parvalbumin-positive inhibitory interneurons in the hippocampus. Each parvalbumin interneuron controls the activity of multiple pyramidal excitatory neurons, thereby regulating neuronal circuits and memory consolidation. Preventing the loss of parvalbumin neurons by deleting a proapoptotic protein, mitochondrial anchored protein ligase (MAPL), selectively in parvalbumin neurons rescued anesthesia-induced deficits in pyramidal cell inhibition and hippocampus-dependent long-term memory. Conversely, partial depletion of parvalbumin neurons in neonates was sufficient to engender long-lasting memory impairment. Thus, loss of parvalbumin interneurons in postnatal mice following repeated general anesthesia critically contributes to memory deficits in adulthood.

Mnk1/2 kinases regulate memory and autism-related behaviours via Syngap1.

MAPK interacting protein kinases 1 and 2 (Mnk1/2) regulate a plethora of functions, presumably via phosphorylation of their best characterized substrate, eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E) on Ser209. Here, we show that, whereas deletion of Mnk1/2 (Mnk double knockout) impairs synaptic plasticity and memory in mice, ablation of phospho-eIF4E (Ser209) does not affect these processes, suggesting that Mnk1/2 possess additional downstream effectors in the brain. Translational profiling revealed only a small overlap between the Mnk1/2- and phospho-eIF4E(Ser209)-regulated translatome. We identified the synaptic Ras GTPase activating protein 1 (Syngap1), encoded by a syndromic autism gene, as a downstream target of Mnk1 because Syngap1 immunoprecipitated with Mnk1 and showed reduced phosphorylation (S788) in Mnk double knockout mice. Knockdown of Syngap1 reversed memory deficits in Mnk double knockout mice and pharmacological inhibition of Mnks rescued autism-related phenotypes in Syngap1+/- mice. Thus, Syngap1 is a downstream effector of Mnk1, and the Mnks-Syngap1 axis regulates memory formation and autism-related behaviours.

Microglia-mediated degradation of perineuronal nets promotes pain.

Activation of microglia in the spinal cord dorsal horn after peripheral nerve injury contributes to the development of pain hypersensitivity. How activated microglia selectively enhance the activity of spinal nociceptive circuits is not well understood. We discovered that after peripheral nerve injury, microglia degrade extracellular matrix structures, perineuronal nets (PNNs), in lamina I of the spinal cord dorsal horn. Lamina I PNNs selectively enwrap spinoparabrachial projection neurons, which integrate nociceptive information in the spinal cord and convey it to supraspinal brain regions to induce pain sensation. Degradation of PNNs by microglia enhances the activity of projection neurons and induces pain-related behaviors. Thus, nerve injury-induced degradation of PNNs is a mechanism by which microglia selectively augment the output of spinal nociceptive circuits and cause pain hypersensitivity.

Autistic-like behavior and cerebellar dysfunction in Bmal1 mutant mice ameliorated by mTORC1 inhibition.

Although circadian and sleep disorders are frequently associated with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), it remains elusive whether clock gene disruption can lead to autistic-like phenotypes in animals. The essential clock gene Bmal1 has been associated with human sociability and its missense mutations are identified in ASD. Here we report that global Bmal1 deletion led to significant social impairments, excessive stereotyped and repetitive behaviors, as well as motor learning disabilities in mice, all of which resemble core behavioral deficits in ASD. Furthermore, aberrant cell density and immature morphology of dendritic spines were identified in the cerebellar Purkinje cells (PCs) of Bmal1 knockout (KO) mice. Electrophysiological recordings uncovered enhanced excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmission and reduced firing rates in the PCs of Bmal1 KO mice. Differential expression of ASD- and ataxia-associated genes (Ntng2, Mfrp, Nr4a2, Thbs1, Atxn1, and Atxn3) and dysregulated pathways of translational control, including hyperactivated mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) signaling, were identified in the cerebellum of Bmal1 KO mice. Interestingly, the antidiabetic drug metformin reversed mTORC1 hyperactivation and alleviated major behavioral and PC deficits in Bmal1 KO mice. Importantly, conditional Bmal1 deletion only in cerebellar PCs was sufficient to recapitulate autistic-like behavioral and cellular changes akin to those identified in Bmal1 KO mice. Together, these results unveil a previously unidentified role for Bmal1 disruption in cerebellar dysfunction and autistic-like behaviors. Our findings provide experimental evidence supporting a putative role for dysregulation of circadian clock gene expression in the pathogenesis of ASD.

Translational control in neurovascular brain development.

The human brain carries out complex tasks and higher functions and is crucial for organismal survival, as it senses both intrinsic and extrinsic environments. Proper brain development relies on the orchestrated development of different precursor cells, which will give rise to the plethora of mature brain cell-types. Within this process, neuronal cells develop closely to and in coordination with vascular cells (endothelial cells (ECs), pericytes) in a bilateral communication process that relies on neuronal activity, attractive or repulsive guidance cues for both cell types and on tight-regulation of gene expression. Translational control is a master regulator of the gene-expression pathway and in particular for neuronal and ECs, it can be localized in developmentally relevant (axon growth cone, endothelial tip cell) and mature compartments (synapses, axons). Herein, we will review mechanisms of translational control relevant to brain development in neurons and ECs in health and disease.

Regulation of mRNA translation in stem cells; links to brain disorders.

Translational control of gene expression is emerging as a cardinal step in the regulation of protein abundance. Especially for embryonic (ESC) and neuronal stem cells (NSC), regulation of mRNA translation is involved in the maintenance of pluripotency but also differentiation. For neuronal stem cells this regulation is linked to the various neuronal subtypes that arise in the developing brain and is linked to numerous brain disorders. Herein, we review translational control mechanisms in ESCs and NSCs during development and differentiation, and briefly discuss their link to brain disorders.

Intranasal insulin rescues repeated anesthesia-induced deficits in synaptic plasticity and memory and prevents apoptosis in neonatal mice via mTORC1.

Long-lasting cognitive impairment in juveniles undergoing repeated general anesthesia has been observed in numerous preclinical and clinical studies, yet, the underlying mechanisms remain unknown and no preventive treatment is available. We found that daily intranasal insulin administration to juvenile mice for 7 days prior to repeated isoflurane anesthesia rescues deficits in hippocampus-dependent memory and synaptic plasticity in adulthood. Moreover, intranasal insulin prevented anesthesia-induced apoptosis of hippocampal cells, which is thought to underlie cognitive impairment. Inhibition of the mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1), a major intracellular effector of insulin receptor, blocked the beneficial effects of intranasal insulin on anesthesia-induced apoptosis. Consistent with this finding, mice lacking mTORC1 downstream translational repressor 4E-BP2 showed no induction of repeated anesthesia-induced apoptosis. Our study demonstrates that intranasal insulin prevents general anesthesia-induced apoptosis of hippocampal cells, and deficits in synaptic plasticity and memory, and suggests that the rescue effect is mediated via mTORC1/4E-BP2 signaling.

4E-BP2-dependent translation in cerebellar Purkinje cells controls spatial memory but not autism-like behaviors.

Recent studies have demonstrated that selective activation of mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) in the cerebellum by deletion of the mTORC1 upstream repressors TSC1 or phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) in Purkinje cells (PCs) causes autism-like features and cognitive deficits. However, the molecular mechanisms by which overactivated mTORC1 in the cerebellum engenders these behaviors remain unknown. The eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E-binding protein 2 (4E-BP2) is a central translational repressor downstream of mTORC1. Here, we show that mice with selective ablation of 4E-BP2 in PCs display a reduced number of PCs, increased regularity of PC action potential firing, and deficits in motor learning. Surprisingly, although spatial memory is impaired in these mice, they exhibit normal social interaction and show no deficits in repetitive behavior. Our data suggest that, downstream of mTORC1/4E-BP2, there are distinct cerebellar mechanisms independently controlling social behavior and memory formation.

Uncovering memory-related gene expression in contextual fear conditioning using ribosome profiling.

Contextual fear conditioning (CFC) in rodents is the most widely used behavioural paradigm in neuroscience research to elucidate the neurobiological mechanisms underlying learning and memory. It is based on the pairing of an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US; e.g. mild footshock) with a neutral conditioned stimulus (CS; e.g. context of the test chamber) in order to acquire associative long-term memory (LTM), which persists for days and even months. Using genome-wide analysis, several studies have generated lists of genes modulated in response to CFC in an attempt to identify the "memory genes", which orchestrate memory formation. Yet, most studies use naïve animals as a baseline for assessing gene-expression changes, while only few studies have examined the effect of the US alone, without pairing to context, using genome-wide analysis of gene-expression. Herein, using the ribosome profiling methodology, we show that in male mice an immediate shock, which does not lead to LTM formation, elicits pervasive translational and transcriptional changes in the expression of Immediate Early Genes (IEGs) in dorsal hippocampus (such as Fos and Arc), a fact which has been disregarded by the majority of CFC studies. By removing the effect of the immediate shock, we identify and validate a new set of genes, which are translationally and transcriptionally responsive to the association of context-to-footshock in CFC, and thus constitute salient "memory genes".

The translational landscape of ground state pluripotency.

Translational control plays a central role in regulation of gene expression and can lead to significant divergence between mRNA- and protein-abundance. Here, we used genome-wide approaches combined with time-course analysis to measure the mRNA-abundance, mRNA-translation rate and protein expression during the transition of naïve-to-primed mouse embryonic stem cells (ESCs). We find that the ground state ESCs cultured with GSK3-, MEK-inhibitors and LIF (2iL) display higher ribosome density on a selective set of mRNAs. This set of mRNAs undergo strong translational buffering to maintain stable protein expression levels in 2iL-ESCs. Importantly, we show that the global alteration of cellular proteome during the transition of naïve-to-primed pluripotency is largely accompanied by transcriptional rewiring. Thus, we provide a comprehensive and detailed overview of the global changes in gene expression in different states of ESCs and dissect the relative contributions of mRNA-transcription, translation and regulation of protein stability in controlling protein abundance.

Monitoring translation in synaptic fractions using a ribosome profiling strategy.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to develop a method to study genome-wide local translation in biochemically isolated synaptic fractions (synaptoneurosomes). This methodology is of particular interest for neurons, due to the cardinal role of local translational control in neuronal sub-compartments, such as dendrites, for plasticity, learning, memory, and for disorders of the nervous system. NEW METHOD: We combined established methods for purifying synaptoneurosomes with translational profiling (ribosome profiling), a method that employs unbiased next generation sequencing to simultaneously assess transcription and translation in a single sample. RESULTS: The two existing methods are compatible to use in combination and yield high quality sequencing data, which are specific to synaptic compartments. This new protocol provides an easy to implement workflow, which combines biochemical isolation of synaptoneurosomes of varying levels of purity (crude or Percoll gradient purified) with the use of a commercial kit to generate sequencing libraries. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS: Compared to previous studies of the synaptic translatome, our method shows less contamination with non-neuronal cell types or non-synaptic compartments, increasing the specificity of the data obtained. CONCLUSIONS: Combining the isolation of functional synaptic units with ribosome profiling offers a powerful tool to study local translation in synaptic compartments both in health and disease.

Raptor-Mediated Proteasomal Degradation of Deamidated 4E-BP2 Regulates Postnatal Neuronal Translation and NF-κB Activity.

The translation initiation repressor 4E-BP2 is deamidated in the brain on asparagines N99/N102 during early postnatal brain development. This post-translational modification enhances 4E-BP2 association with Raptor, a central component of mTORC1 and alters the kinetics of excitatory synaptic transmission. We show that 4E-BP2 deamidation is neuron specific, occurs in the human brain, and changes 4E-BP2 subcellular localization, but not its disordered structure state. We demonstrate that deamidated 4E-BP2 is ubiquitinated more and degrades faster than the unmodified protein. We find that enhanced deamidated 4E-BP2 degradation is dependent on Raptor binding, concomitant with increased association with a Raptor-CUL4B E3 ubiquitin ligase complex. Deamidated 4E-BP2 stability is promoted by inhibiting mTORC1 or glutamate receptors. We further demonstrate that deamidated 4E-BP2 regulates the translation of a distinct pool of mRNAs linked to cerebral development, mitochondria, and NF-κB activity, and thus may be crucial for postnatal brain development in neurodevelopmental disorders, such as ASD.

Induction of an Alternative mRNA 5' Leader Enhances Translation of the Ciliopathy Gene Inpp5e and Resistance to Oncolytic Virus Infection.

Residual cell-intrinsic innate immunity in cancer cells hampers infection with oncolytic viruses. Translational control of mRNA is an important feature of innate immunity, yet the identity of translationally regulated mRNAs functioning in host defense remains ill-defined. We report the translatomes of resistant murine "4T1" breast cancer cells infected with three of the most clinically advanced oncolytic viruses: herpes simplex virus 1, reovirus, and vaccinia virus. Common among all three infections are translationally de-repressed mRNAs, including Inpp5e, encoding an inositol 5-phosphatase that modifies lipid second messenger signaling. We find that viral infection induces the expression of an Inpp5e mRNA variant that lacks repressive upstream open reading frames (uORFs) within its 5' leader and is efficiently translated. Furthermore, we show that INPP5E contributes to antiviral immunity by altering virus attachment. These findings uncover a role for translational control through alternative 5' leader expression and assign an antiviral function to the ciliopathy gene Inpp5e.

The Role of the Eukaryotic Translation Initiation Factor 4E (eIF4E) in Neuropsychiatric Disorders.

Protein synthesis in eukaryotic cells is a complex, multi-step and tightly regulated process. Translation initiation, the rate limiting step in protein synthesis, is dependent on the activity of eukaryotic translation Initiation Factor 4E (eIF4E). eIF4E is the cap-binding protein which, in synergy with proteins such as the helicase eIF4A and the scaffolding protein eIF4G, binds to mRNA, allowing the recruitment of ribosomes and translation initiation. The function of eIF4E is tightly regulated in cells under normal physiological conditions and can be controlled by post-translational modifications, such as phosphorylation, and by the binding of inhibitory proteins, including eIF4E binding proteins (4E-BPs) and CYFIP1. Recent studies have highlighted the importance of eIF4E in normal or aberrant function of the nervous system. In this mini-review, we will highlight the role of eIF4E function and regulation in the pathophysiology of neurodevelopmental and neuropsychiatric disorders.