Predictors and outcomes associated with the growth curves of self-efficacy beliefs in regard to anger and sadness regulation during adolescence: a longitudinal cross-cultural study.

Introduction: This longitudinal study examined unique and joint effects of parenting and negative emotionality in predicting the growth curves of adolescents' self-efficacy beliefs about regulating two discrete negative emotions (anger and sadness) and the association of these growth curves with later maladjustment (i.e., internalizing and externalizing problems). Methods: Participants were 285 children (T1: M age = 10.57, SD = 0.68; 53.3% girls) and their parents (mothers N = 286; fathers N = 276) from Colombia and Italy. Parental warmth, harsh parenting, and internalizing and externalizing problems were measured in late childhood at T1, whereas early adolescents' anger and sadness were measured at T2 (T2: M age = 12.10, SD = 1.09). Adolescent self-efficacy beliefs about anger and sadness regulation were measured at five time-points from T2 to T6 (T6: M age = 18.45, SD = 0.71), and internalizing and externalizing problems were measured again at T6. Results: Multi-group latent growth curve models (with country as the grouping variable) demonstrated that in both countries there was on average a linear increase in self-efficacy about anger regulation and no change or variation in self-efficacy about sadness regulation. In both countries, for self-efficacy about anger regulation (a) T1 harsh parenting and T1 externalizing problems were negatively associated with the intercept, (b) T2 anger was negatively associated with the slope, and (c) the intercept and the slope were associated with lower T6 internalizing and externalizing problems, controlling for T1 problems. For self-efficacy about sadness regulation, (a) T1 internalizing problems were negatively associated with the intercept only in Italy, (b) T2 sadness was negatively associated with the intercept only in Colombia, and (c) the intercept negatively predicted T6 internalizing problems. Discussion: This study advances knowledge of the normative development of self-efficacy beliefs about anger and sadness regulation during adolescence across two countries, highlighting the predictive value of pre-existing family and individual characteristics on this development and prediction by the development of self-efficacy beliefs on later adjustment.

Parental Happiness Socialization and Youth Adjustment in Italy and Azerbaijan in the COVID-19 Pandemic Era.

This study aims to cross-culturally identify the parental socialization strategies in response to a child's happiness and their associations with youth academic and socio-emotional adjustment, controlling for the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants were a convenient sample of Italian (N = 606, 81.9% mothers) and Azerbaijanis (N = 227, 61.4% mothers) parents of youths (Mage = 12.89, SD = 4.06; 51% girls). Parents filled out an online survey to assess their socialization strategies in response to their children's happiness, their children's negative emotion regulation and dysregulation, academic performance, and prosocial behavior. Exploratory factorial analysis showed the presence of two factors that enclosed supportive and unsupportive parental socialization strategies. A multiple-group path analysis model showed that similarly across countries, supportive parental strategies were positively related to youths' prosocial behavior and that unsupportive parental strategies were positively related to youths' negative emotion dysregulation, and negatively related to youths' academic performance and negative emotion regulation. Those results emerged controlling for parents' and adolescents' gender and age, parents' educational level, social desirability, and Covid-related problems. This study advances cross-cultural knowledge about the impact of the strategies that parents use to socialize their children's happiness in the unique context of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Pathways from Maternal Harsh Discipline Through Rumination to Anxiety and Depression Symptoms: Gender and Normativeness of Harsh Discipline as Moderators.

This study examined gender-specific longitudinal pathways from harsh parenting through rumination to anxiety and depression symptoms among early adolescents from three countries and six subgroups. Participants were 567 mothers, 428 fathers, and 566 children (T1: Mage = 10.89; 50% girls) from Medellín, Colombia (n = 100); Naples, Italy (n = 95); Rome, Italy (n = 99); Durham, North Carolina, United States (Black n = 92, Latinx n = 80, and White n = 100). Parent reported maternal and paternal harsh parenting were measured at T1. Adolescent reported rumination was measured at T2 (Mage = 12.58) and anxiety and depression symptoms were measured at T1 and T3 (Mage = 13.71). Rumination mediated the pathway from maternal harsh discipline to girls' anxiety and depression symptoms, controlling for baseline anxiety and depression symptoms. The more harsh discipline mothers used, the more their daughters ruminated, which in turn was associated with increased anxiety and depression symptoms. Exploratory moderated mediation analyses indicated that the strength of the mediational pathway from maternal harsh discipline through girls' rumination to anxiety and depression symptoms decreased as the normativeness of harsh parenting increased. Mediational pathways for boys and for paternal harsh discipline were not significant. Our findings expand knowledge on specific contexts in which rumination is a mechanism for understanding pathways to anxiety and depression symptoms.

Negative Parenting, Adolescents' Emotion Regulation, Self-Efficacy in Emotion Regulation, and Psychological Adjustment.

This study examines associations between parents' rejection and control, adolescents' self-efficacy in their regulation of negative emotions, and maladjustment. Path analyses were employed to test (a) whether adolescents' dysregulation and self-efficacy regarding anger/sadness regulation mediate the relationship between parental rejection/control and adolescent maladjustment; (b) whether adolescent adjustment mediates the association between parental rejection/control and dysregulation and self-efficacy regarding anger/sadness regulation. Participants included 103 Italian adolescents (Time 1: M age = 15.57; 53% male), their mothers (n = 103), and their fathers (n = 79). Follow up data were assessed one year later (Time 2). At Time 1, adolescent reports of the frequency of mothers' and fathers' rejection and control were examined. At Time 2, adolescent-reports of their beliefs about self-efficacy in regulating anger and sadness, as well as anger and sadness dysregulation, were assessed by two methods: questionnaire and mobile ecological momentary assessment. At Time 2, mothers', fathers', and adolescents' reports of adolescents' aggressive behaviors and depressive problems were also assessed. Maternal rejection was associated with higher one year later aggressive problems, which in turn were associated with higher dysregulation of sadness, and lower self-efficacy in dealing with both anger and sadness. In addition, maternal rejection was associated with higher depressive symptoms one year later, which in turn were associated with lower self-efficacy in dealing with sadness and higher dysregulation of both anger and sadness. Finally, maternal control was associated with higher depressive symptoms, whereas paternal control was associated with lower depressive symptoms.

Perception of school climate, academic performance and risk behaviors in adolescence.

Previous studies support the relevance of students' perception of positive and negative school climate to learning processes and adolescents' adjustment. School climate is affected by both the interactions that are established within the classroom, and by the teachers' behaviors. This study has the overall objective of investigating the relationship between the perception of positive and negative school climate and students' (mal)adjustment during adolescence. Participants were 105 Italian adolescents (52.5% boys, mean age = 15.56, SD = .77) who responded for 15 consecutive days (ecological momentary assessment) to questions related to their perception of positive and negative school climate (Time 1). After one year (Time 2), students' academic performance reported by mothers and fathers and adolescents' self-reported propensity to engage in risk behaviors were examined. Four hierarchical regression models were implemented considering the mean and the instability levels (RMSSD) of the perception of positive and negative school climate as independent variables and, respectively, academic performance and risk behaviors as dependent variables. Results suggest that a higher perception of positive school climate and its instability predict higher academic performance one year later, while a higher perception of negative school climate and its instability predict higher risk behaviors. This study provides an innovative perspective to reflect on the relationship between students' perceptions of school climate and adolescents' (mal)adjustment.

COVID-19 Impact on Parental Emotion Socialization and Youth Socioemotional Adjustment in Italy.

This study examines the change and associations in parental emotion socialization strategies in response to children's negative emotions and youths' adjustment, comparing before the Covid-19 pandemic hit Italy and since the pandemic began. Participants were convenient cross-sectional/normative (Study 1) and clinical/longitudinal (Study 2) samples of Italian parents whose children were in middle childhood and adolescence. In Study 1, self-reported socialization strategies, youths' maladjustment, and emotion dysregulation increased since the pandemic began. Whereas, in Study 2, socialization strategies and youths' maladjustment decreased since the pandemic started. In both studies, unsupportive parental emotion socialization predicted youths' maladjustment and emotion dysregulation, while supportive parental emotion socialization predicted adaptive emotion regulation. This study advances knowledge about the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on the family context.