A Male Child with Infantile Epilepsy due to a Mosaic Missense Variant of PCDH19.

Background: Pathogenic variants of PCDH19, located on the X-chromosome (Xq22.1), cause a rare epileptic encephalopathy with speech and development delay, seizures, behavioral and psychiatric problems. The specific underlying pathogenic mechanism is known as "cellular interference" that results in affected heterozygous females, normal hemizygous males and affected mosaic males but its functioning is not yet clear. Objectives: Reporting new cases of affected males is considered useful to a deeper insight. Subject and Method: We present the case of a three-year-old boy with early-onset seizures at 3 months of age, mild cognitive impairment, partial control of seizures with levetiracetam, normal brain imaging. Results: The patient has a mosaic pathogenic variant c.698A>G (p.Asp233Gly) in PCDH19 assessed by Next Generation Sequencing analysis. We have compared his characteristics with the genotypes and phenotypes of 34 PCDH19 mosaic males earlier reported in the literature. Finally, we have summarized today's knowledge about phenotype-genotype correlation and pharmacological response in these patients. Conclusions: Our report confirms that the clinical picture of mosaic affected males, resembling that of females, can show a wide variability in severity of disease and underlines a stringent need to improve therapeutic approaches and to collect data on long-term follow-up.

Landscape of Constitutional SOX4 Variation in Human Disorders.

SOX proteins are transcription factors which play a role in regulating the development of progenitor cells and tissue differentiation. Twenty members are known, clustered in eight groups named A through H and sharing a common DNA-binding domain called the HMG (high-mobility-group) box. Eleven of the SOX genes have been associated with genetic disorders so far, covering a broad spectrum of developmental diseases. SOX4 is a single-exon gene and belongs to the SOXC group, together with SOX11 and SOX12. SOX4 variants have been recently described to cause a highly penetrant but heterogeneous disorder, with a phenotypic spectrum ranging from mild developmental delays and learning difficulties to intellectual disabilities with congenital anomalies. Nineteen pathogenic variants have been reported to date, generally de novo, heterozygous, and inactivating, either stop-gain or missense, the latter ones primarily targeting the HMG domain. Further, a bi-allelic variant was reported in a single consanguineous family. Copy number variants leading to whole gene deletion or duplication are rare and not clearly associated with any neurodevelopmental disorder. Many open questions remain regarding the definition of variants of unknown significance, a possible role of missense variants outside the HMG domain, genotype-phenotype correlation, the range of phenotypic spectrum and modifying factors, and treatment options.

Magnetic resonance imaging scoring system of the lower limbs in adult patients with suspected idiopathic inflammatory myopathy.

PURPOSE: We aim to propose a visual quantitative score for muscle edema in lower limb MRI to contribute to the diagnosis of idiopathic inflammatory myopathy (IIM). MATERIAL AND METHODS: We retrospectively evaluated 85 consecutive patients (mean age 57.4 ± 13.9 years; 56.5% female) with suspected IIM (muscle weakness and/or persistent hyper-CPK-emia with/without myalgia) who underwent MRI of lower limbs using T2-weighted fast recovery-fast spin echo images and fat-sat T2 echo planar images. Muscle inflammation was evaluated bilaterally in 11 muscles of the thigh and eight muscles of the leg. Edema in each muscle was graded according to a four-point Likert-type scale adding up to 114 points ([11 + 8)] × 3 × 2). Diagnostic accuracy of the total edema score was explored by assessing sensitivity and specificity using the area under the ROC curve. Final diagnoses were made by a multidisciplinary Expert Consensus Panel applying the Bohan and Peter diagnostic criteria whenever possible. RESULTS: Of the 85 included patients, 34 (40%) received a final diagnosis of IIM (IIM group) while 51 (60%) received an alternative diagnosis (non-IIM group). A cutoff score ≥ 18 was able to correctly classify patients having an IIM with an area under the curve of 0.85, specificity of 96%, and sensitivity of 52.9%. CONCLUSION: Our study demonstrates that a quantitative MRI score for muscle edema in the lower limbs (thighs and legs) aids in distinguishing IIM from conditions that mimic it.

GestaltMatcher Database - A global reference for the facial phenotypic variability of rare human diseases.

Dysmorphologists sometimes encounter challenges in recognizing disorders due to phenotypic variability influenced by factors such as age and ethnicity. Moreover, the performance of Next Generation Phenotyping Tools such as GestaltMatcher is dependent on the diversity of the training set. Therefore, we developed GestaltMatcher Database (GMDB) - a global reference for the phenotypic variability of rare diseases that complies with the FAIR-principles. We curated dysmorphic patient images and metadata from 2,224 publications, transforming GMDB into an online dynamic case report journal. To encourage clinicians worldwide to contribute, each case can receive a Digital Object Identifier (DOI), making it a citable micro-publication. This resulted in a collection of 2,312 unpublished images, partly with longitudinal data. We have compiled a collection of 10,189 frontal images from 7,695 patients representing 683 disorders. The web interface enables gene- and phenotype-centered queries for registered users (https://db.gestaltmatcher.org/). Despite the predominant European ancestry of most patients (59%), our global collaborations have facilitated the inclusion of data from frequently underrepresented ethnicities, with 17% Asian, 4% African, and 6% with other ethnic backgrounds. The analysis has revealed a significant enhancement in GestaltMatcher performance across all ethnic groups, incorporating non-European ethnicities, showcasing a remarkable increase in Top-1-Accuracy by 31.56% and Top-5-Accuracy by 12.64%. Importantly, this improvement was achieved without altering the performance metrics for European patients. GMDB addresses dysmorphology challenges by representing phenotypic variability and including underrepresented groups, enhancing global diagnostic rates and serving as a vital clinician reference database.

Modifiers of Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease Severity: The Role of PKD1 Hypomorphic Alleles.

Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is the most common genetic cause of kidney failure in adult life. Rarely, ADPKD can be diagnosed in utero or in infancy, and the genetic mechanism underlying such severe presentation has been shown to be related to reduced gene dosage. Biallelic PKD1 variants are often identified in early onset ADPKD, with one main pathogenic variant and a modifier hypomorphic variant showing an in trans configuration. We describe two unrelated individuals with early onset cystic kidney disease and unaffected parents, where a combination of next-generation sequencing of cystic genes including PKHD1, HNF1B and PKD1 allowed the identification of biallelic PKD1 variants. Furthermore, we review the medical literature in order to report likely PKD1 hypomorphic variants reported to date and estimate a minimal allele frequency of 1/130 for this category of variants taken as a group. This figure could help to orient genetic counseling, although the interpretation and the real clinical impact of rare PKD1 missense variants, especially if previously unreported, remain challenging.

The Enigmatic Genetic Landscape of Hereditary Hearing Loss: A Multistep Diagnostic Strategy in the Italian Population.

Hearing loss is the most frequent sensorineural disorder, affecting approximately 1:1000 newborns. Hereditary forms (HHL) represent 50-60% of cases, highlighting the relevance of genetic testing in deaf patients. HHL is classified as non-syndromic (NSHL-70% of cases) or syndromic (SHL-30% of cases). In this study, a multistep and integrative approach aimed at identifying the molecular cause of HHL in 102 patients, whose GJB2 analysis already showed a negative result, is described. In NSHL patients, multiplex ligation probe amplification and long-range PCR analyses of the STRC gene solved 13 cases, while whole exome sequencing (WES) identified the genetic diagnosis in 26 additional ones, with a total detection rate of 47.6%. Concerning SHL, WES detected the molecular cause in 55% of cases. Peculiar findings are represented by the identification of four subjects displaying a dual molecular diagnosis and eight affected by non-syndromic mimics, five of them presenting Usher syndrome type 2. Overall, this study provides a detailed characterisation of the genetic causes of HHL in the Italian population. Furthermore, we highlighted the frequency of Usher syndrome type 2 carriers in the Italian population to pave the way for a more effective implementation of diagnostic and follow-up strategies for this disease.

Chromosomal Microarray Analysis Identifies a Novel SALL1 Deletion, Supporting the Association of Haploinsufficiency with a Mild Phenotype of Townes-Brocks Syndrome.

SALL1 heterozygous pathogenic variants cause Townes-Brocks syndrome (TBS), a condition with variable clinical presentation. The main features are a stenotic or imperforate anus, dysplastic ears, and thumb malformations, and other common concerns are hearing impairments, foot malformations, and renal and heart defects. Most of the pathogenic SALL1 variants are nonsense and frameshift, likely escaping nonsense-mediated mRNA decay and causing disease via a dominant-negative mechanism. Haploinsufficiency may result in mild phenotypes, but only four families with distinct SALL1 deletions have been reported to date, with a few more being of larger size and also affecting neighboring genes. We report on a family with autosomal dominant hearing impairment and mild anal and skeletal anomalies, in whom a novel 350 kb SALL1 deletion, spanning exon 1 and the upstream region, was identified by array comparative genomic hybridization. We review the clinical findings of known individuals with SALL1 deletions and point out that the overall phenotype is milder, especially when compared with individuals who carry the recurrent p.Arg276Ter mutation, but with a possible higher risk of developmental delay. Chromosomal microarray analysis is still a valuable tool in the identification of atypical/mild TBS cases, which are likely underestimated.

De Novo ZMYND8 variants result in an autosomal dominant neurodevelopmental disorder with cardiac malformations.

PURPOSE: ZMYND8 encodes a multidomain protein that serves as a central interactive hub for coordinating critical roles in transcription regulation, chromatin remodeling, regulation of super-enhancers, DNA damage response and tumor suppression. We delineate a novel neurocognitive disorder caused by variants in the ZMYND8 gene. METHODS: An international collaboration, exome sequencing, molecular modeling, yeast two-hybrid assays, analysis of available transcriptomic data and a knockdown Drosophila model were used to characterize the ZMYND8 variants. RESULTS: ZMYND8 variants were identified in 11 unrelated individuals; 10 occurred de novo and one suspected de novo; 2 were truncating, 9 were missense, of which one was recurrent. The disorder is characterized by intellectual disability with variable cardiovascular, ophthalmologic and minor skeletal anomalies. Missense variants in the PWWP domain of ZMYND8 abolish the interaction with Drebrin and missense variants in the MYND domain disrupt the interaction with GATAD2A. ZMYND8 is broadly expressed across cell types in all brain regions and shows highest expression in the early stages of brain development. Neuronal knockdown of the DrosophilaZMYND8 ortholog results in decreased habituation learning, consistent with a role in cognitive function. CONCLUSION: We present genomic and functional evidence for disruption of ZMYND8 as a novel etiology of syndromic intellectual disability.

HDAC9 structural variants disrupting TWIST1 transcriptional regulation lead to craniofacial and limb malformations.

Structural variants (SVs) can affect protein-coding sequences as well as gene regulatory elements. However, SVs disrupting protein-coding sequences that also function as cis-regulatory elements remain largely uncharacterized. Here, we show that craniosynostosis patients with SVs containing the histone deacetylase 9 (HDAC9) protein-coding sequence are associated with disruption of TWIST1 regulatory elements that reside within the HDAC9 sequence. Based on SVs within the HDAC9-TWIST1 locus, we defined the 3'-HDAC9 sequence as a critical TWIST1 regulatory region, encompassing craniofacial TWIST1 enhancers and CTCF sites. Deletions of either Twist1 enhancers (eTw5-7Δ/Δ) or CTCF site (CTCF-5Δ/Δ) within the Hdac9 protein-coding sequence led to decreased Twist1 expression and altered anterior/posterior limb expression patterns of SHH pathway genes. This decreased Twist1 expression results in a smaller sized and asymmetric skull and polydactyly that resembles Twist1+/- mouse phenotype. Chromatin conformation analysis revealed that the Twist1 promoter interacts with Hdac9 sequences that encompass Twist1 enhancers and a CTCF site, and that interactions depended on the presence of both regulatory regions. Finally, a large inversion of the entire Hdac9 sequence (Hdac9 INV/+) in mice that does not disrupt Hdac9 expression but repositions Twist1 regulatory elements showed decreased Twist1 expression and led to a craniosynostosis-like phenotype and polydactyly. Thus, our study elucidates essential components of TWIST1 transcriptional machinery that reside within the HDAC9 sequence. It suggests that SVs encompassing protein-coding sequences could lead to a phenotype that is not attributed to its protein function but rather to a disruption of the transcriptional regulation of a nearby gene.

Consolidation of the clinical and genetic definition of a SOX4-related neurodevelopmental syndrome.

BACKGROUND: A neurodevelopmental syndrome was recently reported in four patients with SOX4 heterozygous missense variants in the high-mobility-group (HMG) DNA-binding domain. The present study aimed to consolidate clinical and genetic knowledge of this syndrome. METHODS: We newly identified 17 patients with SOX4 variants, predicted variant pathogenicity using in silico tests and in vitro functional assays and analysed the patients' phenotypes. RESULTS: All variants were novel, distinct and heterozygous. Seven HMG-domain missense and five stop-gain variants were classified as pathogenic or likely pathogenic variant (L/PV) as they precluded SOX4 transcriptional activity in vitro. Five HMG-domain and non-HMG-domain missense variants were classified as of uncertain significance (VUS) due to negative results from functional tests. When known, inheritance was de novo or from a mosaic unaffected or non-mosaic affected parent for patients with L/PV, and from a non-mosaic asymptomatic or affected parent for patients with VUS. All patients had neurodevelopmental, neurological and dysmorphic features, and at least one cardiovascular, ophthalmological, musculoskeletal or other somatic anomaly. Patients with L/PV were overall more affected than patients with VUS. They resembled patients with other neurodevelopmental diseases, including the SOX11-related and Coffin-Siris (CSS) syndromes, but lacked the most specific features of CSS. CONCLUSION: These findings consolidate evidence of a fairly non-specific neurodevelopmental syndrome due to SOX4 haploinsufficiency in neurogenesis and multiple other developmental processes.

Increased intracranial arterial tortuosity is associated with worse cardiovascular outcome in patients with Loeys-Dietz syndrome.

The aim of our study was to evaluate the association between intracranial arterial tortuosity and cardiovascular outcome in patients with Loeys-Dietz syndrome (LDS). We performed a retrospective analysis of all patients with genetically confirmed LDS who underwent at least one brain MRA at our institution (n = 32); demographic and clinical features were evaluated in relation to the tortuosity of intracranial arteries as measured by tortuosity index (TI), which was calculated using the formula: [(centerline length) / (straight-line length)-1] × 100. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis for intracranial TI and the binary end point of aortic surgery showed vertebrobasilar TI (VBTI) to be the best classifier among the examined arterial segments (AUC = 0.822). Patients with higher VBTI showed a greater incidence of aortic surgery (p < 0.001) and underwent more surgical and endovascular procedures (p = 0.006), with a higher rate of operations (p = 0.002). Kaplan-Meier analysis showed a significantly longer surgery-free survival in patients with lower arterial tortuosity (p < 0.001). At multivariate analysis, higher VBTI was associated with an increased risk of surgery (p < 0.001), which was independent of gene mutation and patient age. Increased VBTI is a marker of adverse cardiovascular outcome in patients with LDS, which can be easily measured on brain MRA, and may be useful in the management of this heterogeneous patient population.

Recurrent NF1 gene variants and their genotype/phenotype correlations in patients with Neurofibromatosis type I.

Neurofibromatosis type I, a genetic condition due to pathogenic variants in the NF1 gene, is burdened by a high rate of complications, including neoplasms, which increase morbidity and mortality for the disease. We retrospectively re-evaluated the NF1 gene variants found in the period 2000-2019 and we studied for genotype/phenotype correlations of disease complications and neoplasms 34 variants, which were shared by at least two unrelated families (range 2-11) for a total 141 of probands and 21 relatives affected by Neurofibromatosis type I. Recurrent variants could be ascribed to the most common mutational mechanisms (C to T transition, microsatellite slippage, non-homologous recombination). In genotype/phenotype correlations, the variants p.Arg440*, p.Tyr489Cys, and p.Arg1947*, together with the gross gene deletions, displayed the highest rates of complications. When considering neoplasms, carriers of variants falling in the extradomain region at the 5' end of NF1 had a lower age-related cancer frequency than the rest of the gene sequence, showing a borderline significance (p = 0.045), which was not conserved after correction with covariates. We conclude that (1) hotspots in NF1 occur via different mutational mechanisms, (2) several variants are associated with high rates of complications and cancers, and (3) there is an initial evidence toward a lower cancer risk for carriers of variants in the 5' end of the NF1 gene although not significant at the multivariate analysis.

Refining the mutational spectrum and gene-phenotype correlates in pontocerebellar hypoplasia: results of a multicentric study.

BACKGROUND: Pontocerebellar hypoplasias (PCH) comprise a group of genetically heterogeneous disorders characterised by concurrent hypoplasia of the pons and the cerebellum and variable clinical and imaging features. The current classification includes 13 subtypes, with ~20 known causative genes. Attempts have been made to delineate the phenotypic spectrum associated to specific PCH genes, yet clinical and neuroradiological features are not consistent across studies, making it difficult to define gene-specific outcomes. METHODS: We performed deep clinical and imaging phenotyping in 56 probands with a neuroradiological diagnosis of PCH, who underwent NGS-based panel sequencing of PCH genes and MLPA for CASK rearrangements. Next, we conducted a phenotype-based unsupervised hierarchical cluster analysis to investigate associations between genes and specific phenotypic clusters. RESULTS: A genetic diagnosis was obtained in 43 probands (77%). The most common causative gene was CASK, which accounted for nearly half cases (45%) and was mutated in females and occasionally in males. The European founder mutation p.Ala307Ser in TSEN54 and pathogenic variants in EXOSC3 accounted for 18% and 9% of cases, respectively. VLDLR, TOE1 and RARS2 were mutated in single patients. We were able to confirm only few previously reported associations, including jitteriness and clonus with TSEN54 and lower motor neuron signs with EXOSC3. When considering multiple features simultaneously, a clear association with a phenotypic cluster only emerged for EXOSC3. CONCLUSION: CASK represents the major PCH causative gene in Italy. Phenotypic variability associated with the most common genetic causes of PCH is wider than previously thought, with marked overlap between CASK and TSEN54-associated disorders.

Adult phenotype in Koolen-de Vries/KANSL1 haploinsufficiency syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Koolen-de Vries syndrome (KdVS) is a multisystem neurodevelopmental disorder caused by 17q21.31 deletions or mutations in KANSL1. It was mainly described in children. METHODS: A retrospective study on 9 subjects aged 19-45 years and revision of 18 literature patients, with the purpose to get insights into the phenotypic evolution with time, and into the clinical manifestations in adulthood. RESULTS: Seven patients had a 17q21.31 deletion and two a point mutation in KANSL1. All had intellectual disability, which was mild in five (56%) and moderate in four (44%). Epilepsy was diagnosed in four subjects (44%), with onset from 1 to 7 years and full remission before 9 years in 3/4 patients. Scoliosis affected seven individuals (77.7%) and it was substantially stable with age in 5/7 patients, allowing for simple daily activities. Two subjects had severely progressive scoliosis, which was surgically corrected. Overweight or true obesity did occur after puberty in six patients (67%). Behaviour abnormalities were recorded in six patients (67%). The facial phenotype slightly evolved with time to include thick eyebrows, elongated nose and pronounced pointed chin. Despite behaviour abnormalities, happy disposition and sociable attitudes were common. Half of patients had fluent language and were good at writing and reading. Rich language, although limited to single words or short sentences, and very limited or absent skills in writing and reading were observed in the remaining patients. Autonomy in daily activities and personal care was usually limited. CONCLUSIONS: Distinctive features in adult KdVS subjects include intellectual disability, overweight/obesity, behaviour abnormalities with preserved social interest, ability in language, slight worsening of the facial phenotype and no seizures.

Expanding the Neurological Phenotype of Ring Chromosome 10 Syndrome: A Case Report and Review of the Literature.

Ring chromosome 10 [r(10)] syndrome is a rare genetic condition, currently described in the medical literature in a small number of case report studies. Typical clinical features include microcephaly, short stature, facial dysmorphisms, ophthalmologic abnormalities and genitourinary malformations. We report a novel case of r(10) syndrome and review the neurological and neuroradiological phenotypes of the previously described cases. Our patient, a 3 year old Italian girl, represents the 20th case of r(10) syndrome described to date. Intellectual disability/developmental delay (ID/DD), microcephaly, strabismus, hypotonia, stereotyped/aggressive behaviors and electroencephalographic abnormalities were identified in our patient, and in a series of previous cases. A brain MRI disclosed a complex malformation involving both the vermis and cerebellar hemispheres; in the literature, posterior cranial fossa abnormalities were documented by CT scan in another case. Two genes deleted in our case (ZMYND11 in 10p and EBF3 in 10q) are involved in autosomal dominant neurodevelopmental disorders, characterized by different expressions of brain and posterior cranial fossa abnormalities, ID/DD, hypotonia and behavioral problems. Our case expands the neurological and neuroradiological phenotype of r(10) syndrome. Although r(10) syndrome represents an extremely rare condition, with a clinical characterization limited to case reports, the recurrence of specific neurological and neuroradiological features suggests the need for specific genotype-phenotype studies.

A Novel Phenotype of Junctional Epidermolysis Bullosa with Transient Skin Fragility and Predominant Ocular Involvement Responsive to Human Amniotic Membrane Eyedrops.

Junctional epidermolysis bullosa (JEB) is a clinically and genetically heterogeneous skin fragility disorder frequently caused by mutations in genes encoding the epithelial laminin isoform, laminin-332. JEB patients also present mucosal involvement, including painful corneal lesions. Recurrent corneal abrasions may lead to corneal opacities and visual impairment. Current treatments are merely supportive. We report a novel JEB phenotype distinguished by the complete resolution of skin fragility in infancy and persistent ocular involvement with unremitting and painful corneal abrasions. Biallelic LAMB3 mutations c.3052-5C>G and c.3492_3493delCG were identified as the molecular basis for this phenotype, with one mutation being a hypomorphic splice variant that allows residual wild-type laminin-332 production. The reduced laminin-332 level was associated with impaired keratinocyte adhesion. Then, we also investigated the therapeutic power of a human amniotic membrane (AM) eyedrop preparation for corneal lesions. AM were isolated from placenta donors, according to a procedure preserving the AM biological characteristics as a tissue, and confirmed to contain laminin-332. We found that AM eyedrop preparation could restore keratinocyte adhesion in an in vitro assay. Of note, AM eyedrop administration to the patient resulted in long-lasting remission of her ocular manifestations. Our findings suggest that AM eyedrops could represent an effective, non-invasive, simple-to-handle treatment for corneal lesions in patients with JEB and possibly other EB forms.

Coronary Artery Aneurysms in Patients With Marfan Syndrome: Frequent, Progressive, and Relevant.

BACKGROUND: There are few data on the prevalence and clinical consequences of coronary artery aneurysms (CAAs) in adult patients with Marfan syndrome (MFS). METHODS: We performed a retrospective cohort study of 109 patients with pathogenic variants in the FBN1 gene. Diameters of the left main coronary artery (LMCA) and right- coronary artery (RCA) were measured by computed tomography angiography. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of CAA was 46%. The prevalence rates of CAA were 18% and 68% in patients with a native aortic root (group 1) and patients with previous aortic-root replacement (group 2), respectively. Previous aortic dissection or aortic intervention, longer time from aortic-root replacement, higher systemic score, significant mitral valve involvement, and diffuse aortic disease were correlated with CAA. During a mean follow-up of 8.5 ± 7.6 years, 4 patients developed pseudoaneurysms of the coronary anastomoses, requiring surgery. CONCLUSIONS: CAAs are common in adult patients with MFS and are associated with a more severe aortic phenotype and a longer follow-up after aortic-root replacement. Our study demonstrates that coronary artery size should be regularly followed, mostly after aortic-root replacement and in patients with severe aortic phenotypes. Large multicentre studies are warranted to elucidate the most appropriate surveillance plan.

There Is More Than Meets the Eye: Identification of Dual Molecular Diagnosis in Patients Affected by Hearing Loss.

Hearing loss (HL) is the most common sensory impairment, and it is characterized by a high clinical/genetic heterogeneity. Here we report the identification of dual molecular diagnoses (i.e., mutations at two loci that lead to the expression of two Mendelian conditions) in a series of families affected by non-syndromic and syndromic HL. Eighty-two patients who displayed HL as a major clinical feature have been recruited during the last year. After an accurate clinical evaluation, individuals have been analyzed through whole-exome sequencing (WES). This protocol led to the identification of seven families characterized by the presence of a dual diagnosis. In particular, based on the clinical and genetic findings, patients have been classified into two groups: (a) patients with HL and distinct phenotypes not fitting in a known syndrome due to mutations at two loci (e.g., HL in association with Marfan syndrome) and (b) patients with two genes involved in HL phenotype (e.g., TMPRSS3 and MYH14). These data highlight for the first time the high prevalence of dual molecular diagnoses in HL patients and suggest that they should be considered especially for those cases that depart from the expected clinical manifestation or those characterized by a significant intra-familiar variability.