TNF-R1 and FADD mediate UVB-Induced activation of K+ channels in corneal epithelial cells.

The goal of this study was to elucidate the role of Fas, TNF-R1, FADD and cytochrome c in UVB-induced K+ channel activation, an early step in UVB-induced apoptosis, in human corneal limbal epithelial (HCLE) cells. HCLE cells were treated with Fas, TNF-R1 or FADD siRNA and exposed to 80 or 150 mJ/cm2 UVB. K+ channel activation and loss of intracellular K+ were measured using whole-cell patch-clamp recording and ion chromatography, respectively. Cytochrome c was measured with an ELISA kit. Cells in which Fas was knocked down exhibited identical UVB-induced K+ channel activation and loss of intracellular K+ to control cells. Cells in which TNF-R1 or FADD were knocked down demonstrated reduced K+ channel activation and decreased loss of intracellular K+ following UVB, relative to control cells. Application of TNF-α, the natural ligand of TNF-R1, to HCLE cells induced K+ channel activation and loss of intracellular K+. Cytochrome c was translocated to the cytosol by 2 h after exposure to 150 mJ/cm2 UVB. However, there was no release by 10 min post-UVB. The data suggest that UVB activates TNF-R1, which in turn may activate K+ channels via FADD. This conclusion is supported by the observation that TNF-α also causes loss of intracellular K+. This signaling pathway appears to be integral to UVB-induced K+ efflux, since knockdown of TNF-R1 or FADD inhibits the UVB-induced K+ efflux. The lack of rapid cytochrome c translocation indicates cytochrome c does not play a role in UVB-induced K+ channel activation.

Apoptosis of Corneal Epithelial Cells Caused by Ultraviolet B-induced Loss of K(+) is Inhibited by Ba(2.).

UVB exposure at ambient outdoor levels triggers rapid K(+) loss and apoptosis in human corneal limbal epithelial (HCLE) cells cultured in medium containing 5.5 mM K(+), but considerably less apoptosis occurs when the medium contains the high K(+) concentration that is present in tears (25 mM). Since Ba(2+) blocks several K(+) channels, we tested whether Ba(2+)-sensitive K(+) channels are responsible for some or all of the UVB-activated K(+) loss and subsequent activation of the caspase cascade and apoptosis. Corneal epithelial cells in culture were exposed to UVB at 80 or 150 mJ/cm(2). Patch-clamp recording was used to measure UVB-induced K(+) currents. Caspase-activity and TUNEL assays were performed on HCLE cells exposed to UVB followed by incubation in the presence or absence of Ba(2+). K(+) currents were activated in HCLE cells following UVB-exposure. These currents were reversibly blocked by 5 mM Ba(2+). When HCLE cells were incubated with 5 mM Ba(2+) after exposure to UVB, activation of caspases-9, -8, and -3 and DNA fragmentation were significantly decreased. The data confirm that UVB-induced K(+) current activation and loss of intracellular K(+) leads to activation of the caspase cascade and apoptosis. Extracellular Ba(2+) inhibits UVB-induced apoptosis by preventing loss of intracellular K(+) when K(+) channels are activated. Ba(2+) therefore has effects similar to elevated extracellular K(+) in protecting HCLE cells from UVB-induced apoptosis. This supports our overall hypothesis that elevated K(+) in tears contributes to protection of the corneal epithelium from adverse effects of ambient outdoor UVB.

Involvement of the extrinsic and intrinsic pathways in ultraviolet B-induced apoptosis of corneal epithelial cells.

The goal of this study was to elucidate the pathway by which UVB initiates efflux of K(+) and subsequently apoptosis in human corneal limbal epithelial (HCLE) cells. The initial focus of the study was on the extrinsic pathway involving Fas. HCLE cells transfected with Fas siRNA were exposed to 80-150 mJ/cm(2) UVB and incubated in culture medium with 5.5 mM K(+). Knockdown of Fas resulted in limited reduction in UVB-induced caspase-8 and -3 activity. Patch-clamp recordings showed no difference in UVB-induced normalized K(+) currents between Fas transfected and control cells. Knockdown of caspase-8 had no effect on the activation of caspase-3 following UVB exposure, while a caspase-8 inhibitor completely eliminated UVB activation of caspase-3. This suggests that caspase-8 is a robust enzyme, able to activate caspase-3 via residual caspase-8 present after knockdown, and that caspase-8 is directly involved in the UVB activation of caspase-3. Inhibition of caspase-9 significantly decreased the activation of caspases-8 and -3 in response to UVB. Knockdown of Apaf-1, required for activation of caspase-9, resulted in a significant reduction in UVB-induced activation of caspases-9, -8, and -3. Knockdown of Apaf-1 also inhibited intrinsic and UVB-induced levels of apoptosis, as determined by DNA fragmentation measured by TUNEL assay. In UVB exposed cultures treated with caspase-3 inhibitor, the percentage of apoptotic cells was reduced to control levels, confirming the necessity of caspase-3 activation in DNA fragmentation. The lack of effect of Fas knockdown on K(+) channel activation, as well as the limited effect on activation of caspases-8 and -3, strongly suggest that Fas and the extrinsic pathway is not of primary importance in the initiation of apoptosis in response to UVB in HCLE cells. Inhibition of caspase-8 and -3 activation following inhibition of caspase-9, as well as reduction in activation of caspases-9, -8, and -3 and DNA fragmentation in response to Apaf-1 knockdown support the conclusion that the intrinsic pathway is more important in UVB-induced apoptosis in HCLE cells.

Potassium ion fluxes in corneal epithelial cells exposed to UVB.

The goal of this study was to investigate the efflux of K(+) from human corneal limbal epithelial cells (HCLE) exposed to ambient levels of UVB, which is known to cause apoptosis, and to examine the effect of K(+) channel blockers on loss of potassium induced by UVB. HCLE cells were exposed to 100-200 mJ/cm(2) UVB, followed by incubation in culture media with 5.5-100 mM K(+), BDS-1, Ba(2+) or ouabain. To measure intracellular cations, cells were washed in 280 mM sucrose and lysed in DI water. K(+) and Na(+) levels in lysates were measured by ion chromatography. HCLE cells showed maximal loss of K(+)(i) 10 min after exposure to UVB and 5.5 mM K(+) media, with recovery of normal K(+) levels after 90 min. Treatment with 1 µM BDS-1 following UVB exposure reduced the loss of K(+) by HCLE cells. Exposure to 0.1-5 mM Ba(2+) inhibited UVB-induced K(+) loss in a time and dose-dependent manner. These results confirm that blocking K(+) channels in HCLE cells exposed to UVB prevents efflux of K(+), confirming that UVB activates K(+) channels in these cells. Electrophysiology data show that K(+) channels remain highly active at least 90 min after UVB exposure. HCLE cells exposed to UVB and incubated in 0.01-1 µM ouabain did not recover from UVB-induced K(+) loss. These data suggest that the Na/K pump may act to restore [K(+)](i) to control levels in HCLE cells following UVB exposure and that the pump is not damaged by exposure to UVB. Incubation of HCLE cells exposed to UVB in medium with 25-100 mM K(+) media prevented K(+) efflux at extracellular concentrations as low as 25 mM (the concentration in tear fluid), maintaining control levels of K(+)(i). In all experiments inward fluxes and intracellular Na(+) levels mirrored K(+) changes, albeit at the expected lower concentrations. The prevention of UVB-induced K(i)(+) loss by 25 mM K(o)(+) is consistent with the possible contribution of the relatively high K(+) concentration in tears to protection of the corneal epithelium from ambient UVB.

Inhibition of UV-B induced apoptosis in corneal epithelial cells by potassium channel modulators.

The goal of this study was to determine whether prevention of K(+) loss can protect human corneal-limbal epithelial (HCLE) cells from UV-B induced apoptosis. Immunostaining for activated caspase-3 of HCLE cells exposed to 150-200 mJ/cm(2) UV-B demonstrated induction of apoptosis 6 h after exposure. The number of apoptotic cells was decreased by incubation in medium with 25 or 100 mM K(+). If this protection is due to a reduction of UV-induced K(+) loss then K(+) channel blockers should also protect HCLE cells from UV-B. Caspase-8 activity induced by exposure to UV-B at 150 mJ/cm(2) was significantly reduced when the cells were incubated in 0.3 microM BDS-I or 0.05-1 mM quinidine. Caspase-3 was also activated by UV-B and a reduction in activity was observed after incubation in 0.1-0.3 microM BDS-I and 0.1-1 mM quinidine. Induction of DNA fragmentation, as measured by the TUNEL assay, was decreased by treatment with 0.3 microM BDS-I and 0.01-0.05 mM quinidine. Patch-clamp recording showed activation of K(+) channels after exposure to UV-B and a decrease in outward K(+) current was observed following application of BDS-I. Quinidine did not block K(+) currents in HCLE cells, suggesting that the protective effect of quinidine occurs by a mechanism other than via K(+) channels. The effect of the K(+) channel blocker BDS-1 on HCLE cells exposed to UV-B confirms that preventing K(+) efflux protects corneal epithelial cells from apoptosis. This suggests the elevated [K(+)] in tears may protect the corneal epithelium from effects of ambient UV-B.

Elevated extracellular K+ inhibits apoptosis of corneal epithelial cells exposed to UV-B radiation.

The goal of this study was to determine if the high [K(+)] in tears, 20-25 mM, serves to protect corneal epithelial cells from going into apoptosis after exposure to ambient UV-B radiation. Human corneal-limbal epithelial (HCLE) cells in culture were exposed to UV-B at doses of 50-200 mJ/cm(2) followed by measurement of K(+) channel activation and activity of apoptotic pathways. Patch-clamp recording showed activation of K(+) channels after UV-B exposure at 80 mJ/cm(2) or 150 mJ/cm(2) and a decrease in UV-induced K(+) efflux with increasing [K(+)](o). The UV-activated current was partially blocked by the specific K(+) channel blocker, BDS-1. DNA fragmentation, as measured by the TUNEL assay, was induced after exposure to UV-B at 100-200 mJ/cm(2). DNA fragmentation was significantly decreased when cells were incubated in 25, 50 or 100mM K(o)(+) after exposure to UV-B. The effector caspase, caspase-3, was activated by exposure to UV-B at 50-200 mJ/cm(2), but there was a significant decrease in activation when the cells were incubated in 25, 50 or 100mM K(o)(+) following exposure to UV-B. A decrease in mitochondrial potential, a possible activator of caspase-3, occurred after exposure to UV-B at 100-200 mJ/cm(2). This decrease in mitochondrial potential was prevented by 100mM K(o)(+); however, 25 or 50mM K(o)(+) provided minimal protection. Caspase-9, which is in the pathway from mitochondrial potential change to caspase-3 activation, showed little activation by UV-B radiation. Caspase-8, an initiator caspase that activates caspase-3, was activated by exposure to UV-B at 50-200 mJ/cm(2), and this UV-activation was significantly reduced by 25-100mM K(o)(+). The data show that the physiologically relevant [K(+)](o) of 25 mM can inhibit UV-B induced activation of apoptotic pathways. This suggests that the relatively high [K(+)] in tears reduces loss of K(+) from corneal epithelial cells in response to UV exposure, thereby contributing to the protection of the ocular surface from ambient UV radiation.