Corrigendum: Individuals under voluntary treatment with sexual interest in minors: what risk do they pose?

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1277225.].

Effect of daridorexant on sleep architecture in patients with chronic insomnia disorder - A pooled post hoc analysis of two randomized Phase 3 clinical studies.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: Post-hoc analysis to evaluate the effect of daridorexant on sleep architecture in people with insomnia, focusing on features associated with hyperarousal. METHODS: We studied sleep architecture in adults with chronic insomnia disorder from two randomized Phase 3 clinical studies (Clinicaltrials.gov: NCT03545191 and NCT03575104) investigating 3 months of daridorexant treatment (placebo, daridorexant 25 mg, daridorexant 50 mg). We analyzed sleep-wake transition probabilities, EEG spectra and sleep spindle properties including density, dispersion, and slow oscillation phase coupling. The Wake EEG Similarity Index (WESI) was determined using a machine learning algorithm analyzing the spectral profile of the EEG. RESULTS: At Month 3, daridorexant 50 mg decreased Wake-to-Wake transition probabilities (P<0.05) and increased the probability of transitions from Wake-to-N1 (P<0.05), N2 (P<0.05), and REM sleep (P<0.05), as well as from N1-to-N2 (P<0.05) compared to baseline and placebo. Daridorexant 50 mg decreased relative beta power during Wake (P=0.011) and N1 (P<0.001) compared to baseline and placebo. During Wake, relative alpha power decreased (P<0.001) and relative delta power increased (P<0.001) compared to placebo. Daridorexant did not alter EEG spectra bands in N2, N3, and REM stages or in sleep spindle activity. Daridorexant decreased the WESI score during Wake compared to baseline (P=0.004). Effects with 50 mg were consistent between Month 1 and Month 3 and less pronounced with 25 mg. CONCLUSION: Daridorexant reduced EEG features associated with hyperarousal as indicated by reduced Wake-to-Wake transition probabilities and enhanced spectral features associated with drowsiness and sleep during Wake and N1.

Assessing the impact of sex on high-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation´s clinical response in schizophrenia - results from a secondary analysis.

BACKGROUND: The evidence for repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) to treat negative symptoms in schizophrenia (SCZ) is increasing, although variable response rates remain a challenge. Subject´s sex critically influences rTMS´ treatment outcomes. Females with major depressive disorder are more likely to respond to rTMS, while SCZ data is scarce. METHODS: Using data from the 'rTMS for the Treatment of Negative Symptoms in Schizophrenia' (RESIS) trial we assessed the impact of sex on rTMS´ clinical response rate from screening up to 105 days after intervention among SCZ patients. The impact of resting motor threshold (RMT) on response rates was also assessed. RESULTS: 157 patients received either active or sham rTMS treatment. No significant group differences were observed. Linear mixed model showed no effects on response rates (all p > 0.519). Apart from a significant sex*time interaction for the positive subscale of the positive and negative syndrome scale (PANSS) scores (p = 0.032), no other significant effects of sex on continuous PANSS scores were observed. RMT had no effect on response rate. CONCLUSION: In the largest rTMS trial on the treatment of SCZ negative symptoms we did not observe any significant effect of sex on treatment outcomes. Better assessments of sex-related differences could improve treatment individualisation.

Individuals under voluntary treatment with sexual interest in minors: what risk do they pose?

Child Sexual Abuse (CSA) and the production, use, and distribution of Child Sexual Abuse Material (CSAM) are key threats to children's mental health. From the perspective of indicated prevention, it can be assumed that some persons with a sexual interest in children commit such unreported crimes. Accordingly, the German Network kein Täter werden (meaning do not offend) has implemented a confidential treatment service for persons with a sexual interest in minors who voluntarily seek therapy, might or might not have offended but have not yet been detected or have fulfilled all legal requirements (here referred to as non-forensic individuals). However, this offer has been questioned for investing resources in a group which critics consider as low risk. The following study addresses the question of recidivism risks for CSA or viewing CSAM among non-forensic individuals. We found significantly higher rates of CSA/CSAM in our participants' history compared to a German study on a representative sample of males. Regarding CSAM, the recidivism rate of 39% was found to be 11 times higher than the expected recidivism rate based on previous publications. Regarding CSA, the recidivism rate of 14% was not significantly different from the expected rate reported for subjects with a conviction for a sexual contact offense. Among various risk instruments, only the CPORT with CASIC rating was able to predict CSA (AUC = 0.69, 95% CI = 0.55, 0.82) and CSAM (AUC = 0.63, 95% CI = 0.53, 0.73) among individuals with a history of CSAM, but with poor discrimination. We conclude that a large proportion of our sample poses a substantial risk and therefore treatment resources are well invested. However, further studies are needed to improve risk assessment among non-forensic clients.

"Try to Build This Bunny as Fast as Possible without Using Red or Pink Bricks": How Simple Assembly Tasks Might Aid in Detecting People with Mild Cognitive Impairment and Dementia.

(1) Background: Dementia and mild cognitive impairment (MCI) are still underdiagnosed in the general population. Impaired odor identification has been identified as an early marker of MCI and dementia. We aim to investigate whether short tasks, in which simple forms must be assembled from single building blocks based on a template or while considering specific re-strictions, could increase the diagnostic quality of established cognitive screening tests in detecting MCI or dementia. (2) Methods: A brief assembly test, where participants had to assemble simple animal shapes from Lego® Duplo® building blocks, the Frontal Assessment Battery, and the Mini-Mental State Exam (MMSE) were administered to a consecutive series of 197 patients (89 with mild dementia, 62 with mild cognitive impairment, and 46 without cognitive impairment) referred for neuropsychological testing. (3) Results: Both participants with dementia and with MCI performed badly in the assembly tasks. The assembly tasks and the Frontal Assessment Battery were substantially correlated. Complementing MMSE scores with the assembly tasks improved the diagnostic accuracy of individuals with dementia and MCI. (4) Conclusions: People with suspected dementia or MCI may already benefit from simple assembly tasks. Although these tests require little additional time, they can notably increase sensitivity for dementia or MCI.

Long-term use of benzodiazepines in chronic insomnia: a European perspective.

Chronic insomnia occurs in ~10% of the general population and has numerous negative health effects. The recommended first line treatment of cognitive behavior therapy for insomnia is not widely available for patients in Europe, so pharmacotherapies such as benzodiazepine receptor agonist agents (benzodiazepines and Z-drugs) are commonly used. However, their use is only recommended for ≤4 weeks due to unproven long-term efficacy in treatment of chronic insomnia, and the risk of tolerance, and the potential for dependence and misuse. In Europe, recommendations limiting the use of benzodiazepines (lowest dose and shortest duration) in chronic insomnia are not always followed, likely due to the lack of approved effective alternative therapies. Here we present a recent pilot survey of the pharmacological treatment landscape in chronic insomnia in five European countries (France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom) and physicians' attitude toward treatment. The results suggest that benzodiazepines and Z-drugs are the most widely used treatments in chronic insomnia and are being used for longer than their recommended duration. Country variations in prescription rates were observed. Due to the known association between long-term benzodiazepine use and potential for developing dependence, further analysis of the literature was performed on the use and misuse of benzodiazepines. The results show that long-term use of benzodiazepines is associated with multiple consequences of treatment, including dependence, but also that previous use of benzodiazepines may increase the risk of opioid use disorder.

"Mmm, Smells like Coffee!": How a Brief Odor Identification Test Could Help to Identify People with Mild Cognitive Impairment and Dementia.

(1) Background: Dementia and mild cognitive impairment (MCI) are still underdiagnosed in the general population. Impaired odor identification has been identified as an early marker of MCI and dementia. We aimed to compare the additional diagnostic value of two odor identification tests to a cognitive screening test in detecting MCI or dementia. (2) Methods: The Sniffin' Sticks odor identification test (SS-OIT), a brief odor identification test (B-OIT) requiring the identification of coffee scent, and the Mini-Mental State Exam (MMSE) were administered to a consecutive series of 174 patients (93 with dementia, 42 with mild cognitive impairment, and 39 without cognitive impairment) referred for neuropsychological testing. (3) Results: Both participants with dementia and with MCI exhibited impairments in odor identification. The SS-OIT and the B-OIT were substantially correlated. Complementing MMSE scores with the SS-OIT or the B-OIT similarly improved the diagnostic accuracy of individuals with dementia and MCI. (4) Conclusions: People with suspected dementia or MCI may already benefit from brief odor identification tests. Although these tests require little additional time, they can notably increase sensitivity for dementia or MCI.

Cognitive Remediation in Psychiatric Disorders: State of the Evidence, Future Perspectives, and Some Bold Ideas.

Many people with psychiatric disorders experience impairments in cognition. These deficits have a significant impact on daily functioning and sometimes even on the further course of their disease. Cognitive remediation (CR) is used as an umbrella term for behavioral training interventions to ameliorate these deficits. In most but not all studies, CR has proven effective in improving cognition and enhancing everyday functional outcomes. In this paper, after quickly summarizing the empirical evidence, practical advice to optimize the effects of CR interventions is provided. We advocate that CR interventions should be as fun and motivating as possible, and therapists should at least consider using positively toned emotional stimuli instead of neutral stimuli. Participants should be screened for basic processing deficits, which should be trained before CR of higher-order cognitive domains. CR should stimulate metacognition and utilize natural settings to invoke social cognition. Wherever possible, CR tasks should link to tasks that participants face in their everyday life. Therapists should consider that participants might also benefit from positive side effects on symptomatology. Finally, the CR approach might even be utilized in settings where the treatment of cognitive impairments is not a primary target.

Evidence and expert consensus based German guidelines for the use of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in depression.

INTRODUCTION: Non-invasive brain stimulation techniques such as repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) offer a promising alternative to psychotherapeutic and pharmacological treatments for depression. This paper aims to present a practical guide for its clinical implementation based on evidence from the literature as well as on the experience of a group of leading German experts in the field. METHODS: The current evidence base for the use of rTMS in depression was examined via review of the literature. From the evidence and from clinical experience, recommendations for the use of rTMS in clinical practice were derived. All members of the of the German Society for Brain Stimulation in Psychiatry and all members of the sections Clinical Brain Stimulation and Experimental Brain Stimulation of the German Society for Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, Psychosomatics and Mental Health were invited to participate in a poll on whether they consent with the recommendations. FINDINGS: Among rTMS experts, a high consensus rate could be identified for clinical practice concerning the setting and the technical parameters of rTMS treatment in depression, indications and contra-indications, the relation of rTMS to other antidepressive treatment modalities and the frequency and management of side effects.

Risk Assessment of Electroconvulsive Therapy in Clinical Routine: A 3-Year Analysis of Life-Threatening Events in More Than 3,000 Treatment Sessions.

Background: Extensive research has reported that electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) can be highly effective in approximately 80% of patients suffering from depression. Its clinical use is mainly limited by historical objections and the concern about unwanted adverse effects (AEs), including serious and potentially life-threatening adverse events (pLTAEs), induced either by ECT or by anesthesia. Objective risk estimation is, therefore, a decisive factor in determining an indication for ECT. Methods: This paper presents a retrospective analysis of 3-year safety protocols and patient files of 157 patients who received a total of 3,106 ECT applications in a psychiatric inpatient setting at a psychiatric community hospital. This patient group comprises 5.3% of inpatients admitted with comparable diagnoses. Adverse events were analyzed from standardized safety protocols and patient files with a focus on pLTAEs. Results: Adverse events were reported for 30 (19.1%) of the 157 participants during 39 (6.1%) of 641 hospital stays. Serious pLTAEs occurred during three electroconvulsive stimulations in three patients, who needed action through the administration of medication or mechanical respiration. No patient suffered permanent damage to health, and no patient died. The incidence of these and other AEs was independent of sex, age, and diagnosis of patients, and anesthesia medication. Minor AEs occurred more often with higher stimulus doses and an increasing number of treatments. Conclusion: The low incidence rate of 0.097% of serious pLTAEs that require medical action may allow the conclusion that ECT is a rather safe treatment when performed in a controlled setting. The beneficial risk profile of ECT performed in the standard care of psychiatric hospitals suggests a more generous indication of this treatment method. We recommend that ECT facilities collect individual safety data to allow a reliable judgment of their institutional ECT risk profile.

Pain Processing in Cognitive Impairment and Its Association with Executive Function and Memory: Which Neurocognitive Factor Takes the Lead?

It is well established that individuals with cognitive impairment present with disturbed forms of pain processing of still unknown origin. As a neurocognitive factor, executive functions have become favored candidates for explanation. For further insights, we aimed at comparing executive functions and memory in their association with parameters indicating onset and escalation of pain perception. Subjective ratings of experimentally induced pressure pain applied in ascending series were assessed in older individuals with (N = 32) and without mild cognitive impairments (MCI) (N = 32). We investigated whether executive functioning (Trail Making Test-B (TMT-B), semantic fluency) or memory (word list and figure recall) were more closely linked to the onset and the escalation of pain. For the MCI group, a strong linkage between pain responses and the TMT-B could be found, i.e., poor test performance was associated with weak pain onset but strong pain escalation. The contribution of memory functions was less substantial and systematic. The prominent role of executive function for pain processing in individuals with MCI could be replicated by a test of cognitive flexibility. This lack of adaptability let individuals with MCI be less vigilant to pain at the beginning but allows for escalating pain in the further course. Thus, being first not sufficiently prepared and later overwhelmed as regards pain may be an early problem in MCI individuals with reduced executive functioning.

Effects of high-frequency prefrontal rTMS on heart frequency rates and blood pressure in schizophrenia.

BACKGROUND: Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is a safe non-invasive neuromodulation technique used for the treatment of various neuropsychiatric disorders. The effect of rTMS applied to the cortex on autonomic functions has not been studied in detail in patient cohorts, yet patients who receive rTMS may have disease-associated impairments in the autonomic system and may receive medication that may pronounce autonomic dysfunctions. METHODS: Using data from the 'rTMS for the Treatment of Negative Symptoms in Schizophrenia' (RESIS) trial we evaluated the effect of rTMS applied to the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) on autonomic nervous system-related parameters such as blood pressure (BP) and heart rate (HR) in both reclining and standing postures from screening up to 105 days after intervention among patients with schizophrenia. RESULTS: 157 patients received either active (n = 76) or sham (n = 81) rTMS treatment. Apart from gender no significant group differences were observed. During intervention, Linear Mixed Model (LMM) analyses showed no significant time × group interactions nor time effects for any of the variables (all p > 0.055). During the whole trial beside a significant time × group interaction for diastolic BP (p = 0.017) in the standing posture, no significant time × group interactions for other variables (all p > 0.140) were found. CONCLUSION: These secondary analyses of the largest available rTMS trial on the treatment of negative symptoms in schizophrenia did not show a significant effect of active rTMS compared to sham rTMS on heart rate or blood pressure, neither during the intervention period nor during the follow-up period.

Altered brain responses to emotional facial expressions in tinnitus patients.

Tinnitus, the phantom perception of sound, is a frequent disorder that can lead to severe distress and stress-related comorbidity. The pathophysiological mechanisms involved in the etiology of tinnitus are still under exploration. Electrophysiological and functional neuroimaging studies provide increasing evidence for abnormal functioning in auditory but also in non-auditory, e.g., emotional, brain areas. In order to elucidate alterations of affective processing in patients with chronic tinnitus, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to measure neural responses to emotionally expressive and neutral faces. Twelve patients with chronic tinnitus and a group of 11 healthy controls, matched for age, sex, hearing loss and depressive symptoms were investigated. While viewing emotionally expressive faces compared to neutral faces brain activations in the tinnitus patients differed from those of the controls in a cluster that encompasses the amygdala, the hippocampus and the parahippocampal gyrus bilaterally. Whereas in controls affective faces induced higher brain activation in these regions than neutral faces, these regions in tinnitus patients were deactivated. Our results (1) provide evidence for alterations of affective processing of facial expressions in tinnitus patients indicating general domain-unspecific dysfunctions in emotion processing and (2) indicate the involvement of medial temporal areas in the pathophysiology of tinnitus.

Die Bedeutung der Ethik bei der Nutzung Künstlicher emotionaler Intelligenz in der Psychiatrie ­ ein ethischer Diskurs.

The ethical discourse addresses the following aspects: What do we need ethics for? Man's disposition to morality, natural ethics. Morality as a social norm. Morality to maintain an inhuman, superhuman power structure. Morality as an artifact of the brain, as a hindrance to new developments. Unity of ethics and aesthetics. "Zoon politikon", "Robinson Crusoe". Does Artificial Intelligence (AI) need new ethics? Characteristics of an AI, developed for loneliness, as a servant or with Christian software, group ability, own emotions, awareness and own ethics, as a supplement. Should AI be expected to have human emotions? Emotional intelligence, language as a mediator of emotions and empathy, the ability to mentalize, artificial (general) emotional intelligence, "Terminator", "L'Eve future".

Sensitivity and specificity of the Bamberg Dementia Screening Test's (BDST) full and short versions: brief screening instruments for geriatric patients that are suitable for infectious environments.

BACKGROUND: Currently, many patients suffering from dementia do not have a diagnosis when admitted to geriatric hospitals. This is the case despite an increased risk of complications affecting the length of stay and outcome. Unfortunately, many dementia screening tests cannot be used on geriatric inpatients, who are often bedridden. Therefore, we aimed at evaluating the diagnostic accuracy of a small battery of bedside tasks that require minimal vision and fine motor skills in patients with suspected dementia. METHODS: In this prospective study, the Bamberg Dementia Screening Test (BDST) was administered to a consecutive series of 1295 patients referred for neuropsychological testing. The diagnosis of dementia was confirmed in 1159 and excluded in 136 patients. Sensitivity and specificity for the first subtest (ultra-short form), the first two subtests (short form), and the total score of the BDST were obtained via receiver operating characteristic curves and compared with the sensitivity and specificity values of the Mini-Mental Status Examination (MMSE). RESULTS: The overall diagnostic quality of the BDST was superior to the MMSE for mild Alzheimer's dementia (sensitivity and specificity = .94 (95% CI .92 to .96) and .82 (95% CI .75 to .88) vs. .79 (95% CI .76 to .83) and .88 (95% CI .82 to .93)) as well as for other subtypes of mild dementia (sensitivity and specificity = .91 (95% CI .88 to .94) and .82 (95% CI .75 to .88) vs. .72 (95% CI .67 to .76) and .88 (95% CI .82 to .93)). Even the short form of the BDST was comparable to the MMSE regarding sensitivity and specificity. For moderate dementia, it was possible to identify dementia cases with sufficient and excellent diagnostic quality by using the ultra-short and the short form. CONCLUSIONS: The BDST is able to detect dementia in geriatric hospital settings. If the adaptive algorithm is used, administration time can be reduced to less than 2 min in most cases. Because no test materials have to be exchanged, this test is particularly suitable for infectious environments where contact between the examiner and the person being tested should be minimized.

Efficacy of high-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in schizophrenia patients with treatment-resistant negative symptoms treated with clozapine.

BACKGROUND: Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is a promising augmentation treatment for schizophrenia, however there are few controlled studies of rTMS augmentation of clozapine. METHODS: Using data from the 'rTMS for the Treatment of Negative Symptoms in Schizophrenia' (RESIS) trial we examined the impact of rTMS on PANSS total, general, positive and negative symptoms among participants on clozapine. rTMS was applied to the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) for five treatment sessions/week for 3-weeks as augmentation for patients with a predominant negative syndrome of schizophrenia, as rated on PANSS. RESULTS: 26 participants from the RESIS trial were on clozapine, receiving active (N=12) or sham (N=14) rTMS treatment. In our Linear Mixed Model (LMM) analysis, time×group interactions were significant in the PANSS positive subscale (p=0.003) (not being the corresponding behavioral output for DLPFC stimulation), the PANSS general subscale (p<0.001), the PANSS total scale (p=0.015), but not the PANSS negative subscale (p=0.301) (primary endpoint of the RESIS trial), when all PANSS measurements from screening to day 105 were included. Descriptive data suggests that in the active group the improvement was more pronounced compared to the sham rTMS group. CONCLUSIONS: In this largest available clozapine cohort, active rTMS may be more effective than sham rTMS when added to clozapine for positive and total psychotic symptoms. These findings should be interpreted with caution given this is a secondary analysis with a limited number of participants.

Eszopiclone for insomnia.

BACKGROUND: Insomnia is a major public health issue affecting between 6% to 10% of the adult population in Western countries. Eszopiclone is a hypnotic drug belonging to a newer group of hypnotic agents, known as new generation hypnotics, which was marketed as being just as effective as benzodiazepines for this condition, while being safer and having a lower risk for abuse and dependence. It is the aim of the review to integrate evidence from randomised controlled trials and to draw conclusions on eszopiclone's efficacy and safety profile, while taking methodological features and bias risks into consideration. OBJECTIVES: To assess the efficacy and safety of eszopiclone for the treatment of insomnia compared to placebo or active control. SEARCH METHODS: We searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO, PSYNDEX and registry databases (WHO trials portal, ClinicalTrials.gov) with results incorporated from searches to 10 February 2016. To identify trials not registered in electronic databases, we contacted key informants and searched reference lists of identified studies. We ran an update search (21 February 2018) and have placed studies of interest in awaiting classification/ongoing studies. These will be incorporated into the next version of the review, as appropriate. SELECTION CRITERIA: Parallel group randomised controlled trials (RCTs) comparing eszopiclone with either placebo or active control were included in the review. Participants were adults with insomnia, as diagnosed with a standardised diagnostic system, including primary insomnia and comorbid insomnia. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two authors independently extracted outcome data; one reviewer assessed trial quality and the second author cross-checked it. MAIN RESULTS: A total of 14 RCTs, with 4732 participants, were included in this review covering short-term (≤ 4 weeks; 6 studies), medium-term (> 4 weeks ≤ 6 months; 6 studies) and long-term treatment (> 6 months; 2 studies) with eszopiclone. Most RCTs included in the review included participants aged between 18 and 64 years, three RCTs only included elderly participants (64 to 85 years) and one RCT included participants with a broader age range (35 to 85 years). Seven studies considered primary insomnia; the remaining studies considered secondary insomnia comorbid with depression (2), generalised anxiety (1), back pain (1), Parkinson's disease (1), rheumatoid arthritis (1) and menopausal transition (1).Meta-analytic integrations of participant-reported data on sleep efficacy outcomes demonstrated better results for eszopiclone compared to placebo: a 12-minute decrease of sleep onset latency (mean difference (MD) -11.94 min, 95% confidence interval (CI) -16.03 to -7.86; 9 studies, 2890 participants, moderate quality evidence), a 17-minute decrease of wake time after sleep onset (MD -17.02 min, 95% CI -24.89 to -9.15; 8 studies, 2295 participants, moderate quality evidence) and a 28-minute increase of total sleep time (MD 27.70 min, 95% CI 20.30 to 35.09; 10 studies, 2965 participants, moderate quality evidence). There were no significant changes from baseline to the first three nights after drug discontinuation for sleep onset latency (MD 17.00 min, 95% CI -4.29 to 38.29; 1 study, 291 participants, low quality evidence) and wake time after sleep onset (MD -6.71 min, 95% CI -21.25 to 7.83; 1 study, 291 participants, low quality evidence). Adverse events during treatment that were documented more frequently under eszopiclone compared to placebo included unpleasant taste (risk difference (RD) 0.18, 95% CI 0.14 to 0.21; 9 studies, 3787 participants), dry mouth (RD 0.04, 95% CI 0.02 to 0.06; 6 studies, 2802 participants), somnolence (RD 0.04, 95% CI 0.02 to 0.06; 8 studies, 3532 participants) and dizziness (RD 0.03, 95% CI 0.01 to 0.05; 7 studies, 2933 participants). According to the GRADE criteria, evidence was rated as being of moderate quality for sleep efficacy outcomes and adverse events and of low quality for rebound effects and next-day functioning. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Eszopiclone appears to be an efficient drug with moderate effects on sleep onset and maintenance. There was no or little evidence of harm if taken as recommended. However, as certain patient subgroups were underrepresented in RCTs included in the review, findings might not have displayed the entire spectrum of possible adverse events. Further, increased caution is required in elderly individuals with cognitive and motor impairments and individuals who are at increased risk of using eszopiclone in a non-recommended way.

[Circadian rhythms and depression]. / Störung zirkadianer Rhythmen im Kontext depressiver Erkrankungen.

Depressive disorders are associated with various neurobiological alterations like hyperactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, altered neuroplasticity and altered circadian rhythms. Relating to the circadian symptoms, a process is adopted in which individual genetic factors together with social, psychological and physical stressors may lead to a decompensation of the circadian system. The causal connections between depressive disorders and disturbed circadian rhythms have not been completely clarified. Chronobiological therapy is based on these disturbed processes. For the treatment of the circadian symptoms, various scientifically tested chronotherapeutics are available with however different effectiveness and evidence like light therapy or sleep deprivation. The successful treatment of depression also frequently leads to a improvement in altered circadian rhythm.

Increased short-interval intracortical inhibition in un-medicated patients with schizophrenia.

BACKGROUND: Schizophrenia is associated with changes in inhibitory and facilitatory brain networks which can be assessed by motor cortex excitability. OBJECTIVE: Here, we investigate differences between large cross-sectional samples of un-medicated and medicated patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls in single- and double-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation parameters. METHODS: We measured right abductor digiti minimi muscle activity in 71 un-medicated, 43 medicated patients and 131 healthy controls. To exclude sample bias analyses were repeated with groups comparable for age and gender (un-medicated: n = 43; medicated: n = 38; controls: n = 49). RESULTS: Un-medicated patients showed increased short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI) in contrast to medicated patients and healthy controls. No group differences were found for resting and active motor threshold, cortical silent period and intracortical facilitation. CONCLUSION: Increases in SICI are in contrast to literature and highlight the necessity for large-scaled multi-centric studies with high methodological standards.