Does midlife aging impact women's sleep duration, continuity, and timing?: A longitudinal analysis from the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation.

Our study objectives were to evaluate the age-related changes in actigraphy measures of sleep duration, continuity, and timing across 12 years in midlife women as they traversed the menopause, and to take into account factors affecting women's sleep that also change with age. Black, white, and Chinese women were recruited from the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation (SWAN) to participate in an ancillary sleep study on two occasions over 3 years apart and a third assessment 12 years after the first (N = 300, mean ages, 52, 55, and 64 at the three assessments). Women had at least four consecutive nights of actigraphy (95% with 7 nights) and sleep diaries, and self-reported sleep complaints measured at each time point. Partial correlations adjusted for time between assessments across the 12 years were significant and moderate in size (r's = .33-.58). PROC MIXED/GLIMMIX multivariate models showed that sleep duration increased over time; wake after sleep onset (WASO) declined, midpoint of sleep interval increased, and sleep latency and number of sleep complaints did not change between the first and third assessments. Blacks and whites had a greater increase in sleep duration than Chinese. Taken together, the results of this longitudinal study suggest that sleep may not worsen, in general, in midlife women. Perhaps, the expected negative effect of aging in midlife into early old age on sleep is overstated.

The effect of pelvic pain and urinary incontinence on women's self-rated health in northern Mexico.

INTRODUCTION AND HYPOTHESIS: This study was designed to assess the effect of gynecological morbidities on Mexican women's self-rated health status and emotional health. METHODS: A cross-sectional population-based study was conducted among Mexican women aged 25-54. We analyzed information on 1,303 participants living in Hermosillo, Mexico. Multiple logistic regression was used to assess the effect of having any one of three kinds of pelvic pain, urinary incontinence or both of these conditions on women's self-rated health. Additionally, we conducted analysis of variance and multiple linear regression to test the effect of these gynecological morbidities on women's self-reported emotional health. RESULTS: Nearly one-third (31.2%) of participants rated their health as fair to very poor. Women reporting of at least one gynecological morbidity were more likely to rate their health as fair to very poor. In adjusted analyses, in addition to older age, low educational attainment, marital status other than single, lack of access to medical care, recurrent kidney infection, asthma, diabetes, and, reporting one or concurrent gynecological morbidities were associated with increased odds (adjusted odds ratios = 1.53-3.91) of reporting fair to very poor self-rated health. Women who did not report any gynecological morbidity had significantly lower mean scores for anxiety/fear 0.30 (±0.30) than women with two to four conditions (anxiety/fear 0.45 ± 0.31). CONCLUSION: Pelvic pain, urinary incontinence, and the co-occurrence of these conditions have a negative impact on women's perception of their health status and their emotional health.

History of Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes, Blood Pressure, and Subclinical Vascular Measures in Late Midlife: SWAN (Study of Women's Health Across the Nation).

BACKGROUND: Adverse pregnancy outcomes, such as preterm birth (PTB), have been associated with elevated risk of maternal cardiovascular disease, but their effect on late midlife blood pressure (BP) and subclinical vascular measures remains understudied. METHODS AND RESULTS: We conducted a cross-sectional analysis with 1220 multiethnic parous women enrolled in SWAN (Study of Women's Health Across the Nation) to evaluate the impact of self-reported history of adverse pregnancy outcomes (PTB, small-for-gestational-age, stillbirth), on maternal BP, mean arterial pressure, and subclinical vascular measures (carotid intima-media thickness, plaque, and pulse wave velocity) in late midlife. We also examined whether these associations were modified by race/ethnicity. Associations were tested in linear and logistic regression models adjusting for sociodemographics, reproductive factors, cardiovascular risk factors, and medications. Women were on average aged 60 years and 255 women reported a history of an adverse pregnancy outcome. In fully adjusted models, history of PTB was associated with higher BP (systolic: ß=6.40; SE, 1.62 [P<0.0001] and diastolic: ß=3.18; SE, 0.98 [P=0.001]) and mean arterial pressure (ß=4.55; SE 1.13 [P<0.0001]). PTB was associated with lower intima-media thickness, but not after excluding women with prevalent hypertension. There were no significant associations with other subclinical vascular measures. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that history of PTB is associated with higher BP and mean arterial pressure in late midlife. Adverse pregnancy outcomes were not significantly related to subclinical cardiovascular disease when excluding women with prevalent hypertension. Future studies across the menopause transition may be important to assess the impact of adverse pregnancy outcomes on midlife progression of BP.

Bedtime Variability and Metabolic Health in Midlife Women: The SWAN Sleep Study.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: Circadian misalignment, as seen in shift workers, can disrupt metabolic processes. Associations between sleep timing in nonshift workers and metabolic health are unknown. We examined sleep timing and indices of metabolic health in a community sample of midlife women. METHODS: Caucasian (n = 161), African American (n = 121) and Chinese (n = 56) non-shift-working women aged 48-58 y who were not taking insulin-related medications, participated in the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation (SWAN) Sleep Study and were subsequently examined approximately 5.39 (standard deviation = 0.71) y later. Daily diary-reported bedtimes were used to calculate four measures of sleep timing: mean bedtime, bedtime variability, bedtime delay and bedtime advance. Body mass index (BMI) and insulin resistance (homeostatic model assessment-insulin resistance, HOMA-IR) were measured at two time points. Linear regressions evaluated whether sleep timing was associated with BMI and HOMA-IR cross-sectionally and prospectively. RESULTS: In cross-sectional models, greater variability in bedtime and greater bedtime delay were associated with higher HOMA-IR (ß = 0.128; P = 0.007, and ß = 0.110; P = 0.013, respectively) and greater bedtime advance was associated with higher BMI (ß = 0.095; P = 0.047). Prospectively, greater bedtime delay predicted increased HOMA-IR at Time 2 (ß = 0.152; P = 0.003). Results were partially explained by shifted sleep timing on weekends. CONCLUSION: Frequent shifts in sleep timing may be related to metabolic health among non-shift working midlife women. COMMENTARY: A commentary on this article appears in this issue on page 269.

A Pilot Study Comparing Observational and Questionnaire Surrogate Measures of Pesticide Exposure Among Residents Impacted by the Ecuadorian Flower Industry.

Self-reported measures of residential pesticide exposure are commonly used in epidemiological studies, especially when financial and logistical resources are limited. However, self-reporting is prone to misclassification bias. This pilot study assesses the agreement between self-report of residential pesticide exposure with direct observation measures, in an agricultural region of Ecuador, as a cross-validation method in 26 participants (16 rose workers and 10 controls), with percent agreement and kappa statistics calculated. Proximity of homes to nearby flower farms was found to have only fair agreement (kappa =.35). The use of discarded plastics (kappa =.06) and wood (kappa =.13) were found to have little agreement. Results indicate that direct observation or measurement may provide more accurate appraisals of residential exposures, such as proximity to industrial farmland and the use of discarded materials obtained from the flower farms.

Measuring urinary incontinence in a population of women in northern Mexico: prevalence and severity.

INTRODUCTION AND HYPOTHESIS: This study was designed to estimate the prevalence of urinary incontinence and its associated risk factors among women in northern Mexico. The type and severity of incontinence were also assessed. METHODS: This cross-sectional population-based study assessed self-reported urinary incontinence in a random sample of 1,307 women aged 25-54 years. Logistic regression was used to estimate the association of urinary incontinence with sociodemographic and reproductive characteristics and other medical conditions. RESULTS: Overall, 18.4% of participants reported having involuntary loss of urine at some time within the last 12 months (95% CI, 16.4-20.7%). Among women reporting urinary incontinence, stress incontinence was the most common form (56.8%), followed by mixed (31.1%) and urge incontinence (10.0%). Approximately half of the women with urinary incontinence symptoms reported a severity index of moderate (25.8%) to severe (26.2%), with 30% stating that their leakage was extremely bothersome. Forty percent of incontinent women reported use of some sort of protection, although only 28% had ever talked to a physician about their symptoms. In adjusted analyses, high body mass index (BMI) ≥ 25 kg/m(2), chronic urinary tract infections, and a history of a hysterectomy or uterine leiomyomata were associated with increased odds of reporting incontinence symptoms. Increased odds of reporting severe urinary incontinence was associated with chronic urinary tract infections, current smoking and high BMI. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that there might be a need to develop a culturally sensitive screening questionnaire in order to identify and counsel women with mild incontinence symptoms in the primary care setting.

Neighborhood socio-environmental vulnerability and infant mortality in Hermosillo, Sonora / Vulnerabilidad socioambiental y mortalidad infantil en barrios de Hermosillo, Sonora

OBJECTIVE: This paper explores the impact of contextual variables at the neighborhood level on a health marker in the city of Hermosillo, Mexico and discusses the importance of collaboration between planners and health professional to minimize the negative effect of contextual factors on urban health. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Few studies in Mexico have assessed health outcomes at the intra-urban scale and their interaction with neighborhood-level contextual variables. Using spatial analysis and geographical information systems, the paper explores the association between infant mortality and an index of socio-environmental vulnerability used to measure urban contextual factors. RESULTS: Two high infant mortality clusters were detected within neighborhoods characterized by relatively good environmental conditions and one in a neighborhood with a poor environment. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show the clustering of high infant mortality areas and some association with built environment factors in Hermosillo. The results support the need to reconnect public health and urban planning as a way to create healthier environments in Mexican cities.

OBJETIVO: Este artículo explora el papel de factores contextuales a nivel de colonia sobre un marcador de salud en la ciudad de Hermosillo, México y discute la importancia de la colaboración entre planificadores urbanos y profesionales de la salud para minimizar el impacto negativo de factores contextuales sobre la salud de la población urbana. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Pocos estudios en México han evaluado las condiciones de salud a escala intra-urbana y su interacción con variables contextuales a nivel de colonia. Utilizando análisis espacial y sistemas de información geográfica, el artículo explora la relación entre mortalidad infantil y un índice de vulnerabilidad socio-ambiental construido para medir factores contextuales urbanos. RESULTADOS: Dos conglomerados de alta mortalidad infantil fueron detectados dentro de colonias caracterizadas por condiciones ambientales relativamente buenas y uno en una colonia con un ambiente pobre. CONCLUSIONES: Los resultados indican la formación de conglomerados de alta mortalidad infantil y una conexión moderada con factores del medio ambiente construido en Hermosillo. Estos resultados apoyan la necesidad de reconectar la salud pública y la planeación urbana como un método para crear ambientes más sanos en las ciudades de México.

Neighborhood socio-environmental vulnerability and infant mortality in Hermosillo, Sonora.

OBJECTIVE: This paper explores the impact of contextual variables at the neighborhood level on a health marker in the city of Hermosillo, Mexico and discusses the importance of collaboration between planners and health professional to minimize the negative effect of contextual factors on urban health. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Few studies in Mexico have assessed health outcomes at the intra-urban scale and their interaction with neighborhood-level contextual variables. Using spatial analysis and geographical information systems, the paper explores the association between infant mortality and an index of socio-environmental vulnerability used to measure urban contextual factors. RESULTS: Two high infant mortality clusters were detected within neighborhoods characterized by relatively good environmental conditions and one in a neighborhood with a poor environment. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show the clustering of high infant mortality areas and some association with built environment factors in Hermosillo. The results support the need to reconnect public health and urban planning as a way to create healthier environments in Mexican cities.

Variation of cervical cancer incidence in Latin America and the Caribbean / Variación de la incidencia del cáncer cervicouterino en América Latina y el Caribe

OBJECTIVE: To provide a comprehensive analysis of the descriptive epidemiology of invasive cervical cancer in Latin America and the Caribbean by analyzing quality data from the area's cancer registries, including data that were excluded from the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) publication, Cancer Incidence in Five Continents, Vol. IX (CI5-IX). METHODS: This was a descriptive epidemiologic study that involved 20 cancer registries, 9 of which were included by IARC in CI5-IX, and 11 of which were not. Data on invasive cervical cancers diagnosed from 1998-2002 were obtained from IARC. A cervical cancerspecific quality assessment was performed on all registries whether or not they were included in CI5-IX. Data from 14 registries met quality criteria and were analyzed. Incidence rates were calculated and compared across registries. RESULTS: A substantial variation in incidence rates existed among the registries; agestandardized rates ranged from 14.6-44.0 per 100 000 women per year. Mean cervical cancer incidence rates were 10.4% higher for registries included in CI5-IX than for those excluded; however, this difference was not significant (P = 0.541). CONCLUSIONS: This study compared cervical cancer rates from a more diverse group of Latin American and Caribbean countries than that of the CI5-IX. The heterogeneity found among registries highlights the importance of examining data from as many registries as possible when characterizing risk across a geographic area. Data from developing countries can be used to better understand cancer distribution and enable Region-specific recommendations on cancer control and prevention once data quality has been established.

OBJETIVO: Efectuar un análisis integral de las características epidemiológicas descriptivas del cáncer de cervicouterino invasor en América Latina y el Caribe mediante el análisis de datos de calidad de los registros de cáncer de la región, incluso datos que fueron excluidos de la publicación del Centro Internacional de Investigaciones sobre el Cáncer (CIIC), Incidencia del cáncer en cinco continentes, Vol. IX (CI5-IX). MÉTODOS: En este estudio epidemiológico descriptivo se incluyeron 20 registros sobre el cáncer, de los cuales solo nueve fueron incluidos por el CIIC en el informe CI5-IX. Los datos sobre cáncer cervicouterino invasor diagnosticado entre 1998 y 2002 se obtuvieron a partir del CIIC. Se llevó a cabo una evaluación de la calidad de todos los registros específica para el cáncer cervicouterino, con independencia de que estuvieran incluidos en el informe CI5-IX o no. Los datos de 14 registros satisficieron los criterios de calidad y se analizaron. Se calcularon las tasas de incidencia y se compararon estas entre los registros. RESULTADOS: Entre los registros se comprobó una variación sustancial en las tasas de incidencia; las tasas normalizadas según la edad variaron entre 14,6 y 44,0 por 100 000 mujeres por año. Las tasas de incidencia medias de cáncer cervicouterino fueron 10,4% mayores en los registros incluidos en el CI5-IX que en aquellos excluidos; sin embargo, esta diferencia no fue significativa (P = 0,541). CONCLUSIONES: En este estudio se compararon las tasas de cáncer cervicouterino de un grupo más diverso de países de América Latina y el Caribe que el comprendido en el informe CI5-IX. La heterogeneidad encontrada entre los registros destaca la importancia de examinar los datos de tantos registros como sea posible cuando se caracteriza el riesgo en una zona geográfica. Los datos de los países en desarrollo pueden usarse para conocer más a fondo la distribución del cáncer y permiten formular recomendaciones específicas para la región sobre el control y la prevención del cáncer, una vez que se ha comprobado la calidad de los datos.

Regional variation in histopathology-specific incidence of invasive cervical cancer among Peruvian women.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate patterns of cervical cancer incidence in Peru by examining variation in 2 common histopathologic types, squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) and adenocarcinoma (ADC), and analyzing trends over time. METHODS: Data on the incidence of invasive cervical cancer between 1984 and 2006 were obtained from 3 population-based cancer registries in Peru: Lima, Trujillo, and Arequipa. For each registry, data quality assessment was performed, crude and age-specific incidence was calculated, and time trends were analyzed. RESULTS: Overall and SCC incidence varied across registries but incidence of ADC did not. Overall and SCC incidence showed significant declines in Trujillo (P<0.05) and modest declines in Lima (P>0.05) over time. ADC incidence showed marginally significant increases among women aged 15-29 years in Trujillo (P=0.10) and modest increases among young women in Lima (P>0.05). CONCLUSION: Population-based cancer registries were an efficient source of data for evaluating the incidence of cervical cancer once data quality had been established. Geographic and temporal variations in cervical cancer burden were documented in Peru. The trends suggest that cervical ADC is increasing among young women in urban Peru, particularly in Trujillo. We recommend supplementing current Papanicolaou test screening with complementary methods of cervical cancer control, including human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination and HPV DNA testing.

Validity of underlying cause of death statistics in Hermosillo, Mexico.

OBJECTIVE: This paper assesses the quality of the underlying cause of death (COD) statistics in Hermosillo, Mexico in a random sample of 300 in-hospital adult deaths. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A "gold standard" COD, determined by a systematic review of hospital medical charts, was compared to the COD reported by the vital registry system. RESULTS: Overall agreement between the reviewer and original COD at the ICD-10 chapter block was 69.2%, with a weighted kappa of 0.62. Agreement varied greatly by ICD-10 chapter. Mutual misclassification among common co-morbidities,such as diabetes mellitus and circulatory disease, minimized the net change in the mortality fraction assigned to each ICD-10 chapter after physician review. CONCLUSIONS: The ICD-10 chapter level underlying COD codes can be used to estimate disease burden in the population. Caution is recommended for use of vital registry statistics in Hermosillo for individual level or disease-specific analyses.

Validity of underlying cause of death statistics in Hermosillo, Mexico / Validez de las estadísticas de causa básica de muerte en Hermosillo, México

OBJECTIVE: This paper assesses the quality of the underlying cause of death (COD) statistics in Hermosillo, Mexico in a random sample of 300 in-hospital adult deaths. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A "gold standard" COD, determined by a systematic review of hospital medical charts, was compared to the COD reported by the vital registry system. RESULTS: Overall agreement between the reviewer and original COD at the ICD-10 chapter block was 69.2 percent, with a weighted kappa of 0.62. Agreement varied greatly by ICD-10 chapter. Mutual misclassification among common co-morbidities,such as diabetes mellitus and circulatory disease, minimized the net change in the mortality fraction assigned to each ICD-10 chapter after physician review. CONCLUSIONS: The ICD-10 chapter level underlying COD codes can be used to estimate disease burden in the population. Caution is recommended for use of vital registry statistics in Hermosillo for individual level or disease-specific analyses.

OBJETIVO: Examinar la validez de la causa básica de muerte (CBM) de certificados de defunción de un sistema digital de vigilancia epidemiológica en Hermosillo, México. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Se comparó la CBM originalmente codificada en una muestra aleatoria de 300 certificados de defunción de muertes adultas ocurridas en al año 2005, con la CBM determinada por una revisión de expedientes médicos. RESULTADOS: Se identificó una concordancia global de 69.2 por ciento entre la CBM original y la determinada por la revisión, con un coeficiente de kappa de 0.62. La concordancia varió,con errores de codificación en padecimientos como diabetes mellitus, enfermedades circulatorias y respiratorias y neoplasias. El efecto de esos errores fue compensado por una mutua asignación equivocada en el proceso de codificación de la CBM empleado por el sistema. CONCLUSIONES: Las estadísticas generadas por el sistema examinado pueden usarse con cautela para estimar la carga poblacional de mortalidad en Hermosillo, México.

HPV knowledge in Mexican college students: implications for intervention programmes.

In order to promote new human papillomavirus (HPV) prevention and detection methods effectively in Mexico, it is important to understand how much the population knows about the virus. This study aimed to determine the demographic and behavioural factors associated with HPV awareness and knowledge in a population of Mexican college students. With a response rate of 77%, data were collected from 1109 college students aged 17-25 years old at the Autonomous University of the State of Morelos in 2006. Students completed a questionnaire that assessed demographic and behavioural characteristics along with questions about HPV. A small percentage (16.9%) of the college students had never heard about HPV. Characteristics associated with not having heard about HPV included being male, not having running water, not having health insurance and not having sexual experience. Students had a median score of 5 out of 10 on an HPV knowledge index based on 10 yes/no questions about HPV developed for this study. Students had higher HPV knowledge scores if they studied health science, or science and engineering, were a fourth year student, had running water at home, had health insurance, or were a female who had had a previous Pap smear. Although most of these Mexican college students had heard of HPV, they had limited knowledge about the virus and prevention strategies. Further research in Mexican college students is needed to explain the variations in HPV knowledge to create appropriate health education programmes.

Pelvic pain and associated characteristics among women in northern Mexico.

CONTEXT: Until recently, the reproductive health agenda has focused on a restricted number of morbidity indicators, particularly those associated with life-threatening diseases. However, gynecologic morbidities that are a source of pelvic pain, although not life-threatening, do impose a substantial burden because of their potential to reduce women's overall well-being. METHODS: In 2005, a cross-sectional population-based study was conducted in Hermosillo, Mexico, to assess self- reported pelvic pain conditions in a random sample of 1,307 women aged 25-54. The 12-month prevalence of each condition was calculated, and logistic regression was used to assess the association between pelvic pain and social, demographic, anthropometric and reproductive characteristics, and other medical conditions. RESULTS: The 12-month prevalence of pelvic pain during menstruation among 1,007 menstruating women was 40%. Pelvic pain during or after sexual intercourse was reported by 12% of the 1,183 sexually active respondents. Among 1,201 nonpregnant women, 6% reported chronic pelvic pain. In adjusted analyses, younger age (25-34 years) and having a history of STIs or pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) were associated with an increased risk of pain during menstruation and chronic pelvic pain (odds ratios, 1.6-3.1). An interaction term for younger age and history of STIs or PID was associated with an elevated risk of intercourse-related pelvic pain (6.4). Chronic pelvic pain and pain during menstruation were more frequently reported as interfering with daily activities than was intercourse-related pelvic pain. The proportion of women who had talked with a physician about their condition was highest among those with chronic pelvic pain (40%). CONCLUSION: Pelvic pain associated with menstruation, pelvic pain during or after sexual intercourse, and chronic pelvic pain are common complaints among Mexican women of reproductive age. Health care providers should pay greater attention to these conditions.

[When coitus produce pain: an exploration of female sexuality in northwest Mexico]. / Cuando el coito produce dolor: una exploración de la sexualidad femenina en el noroeste de México.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of dyspareunia among women aged 25-54 and its associated risk factors. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A cross-sectional population-based study was carried out in the city of Hermosillo, Sonora and data from 1,183 sexually active women were analyzed. A multiple logistic regression was computed to analyze the association between dyspareunia and sociodemographic characteristics, medical conditions and sexual violence. RESULTS: The 12-month prevalence of dyspareunia was estimated to be 12.3% (95% CI 10.5, 14.4). After adjustment for working conditions, dyspareunia was associated with younger ages (25-34 years), history of sexually transmitted diseases/pelvic inflammatory disease, chronic urinary tract infections, colitis and history of sexual violence. CONCLUSION: Increased attention to this condition by reproductive health programs and primary care services is urgently needed in Mexico.

Cuando el coito produce dolor: una exploración de la sexualidad femenina en el noroeste de México / When coitus produce pain: an exploration of female sexuality in northwest Mexico

OBJETIVO: Determinar la prevalencia de dispareunia y los factores de riesgo asociados en población femenina en edades de 25 a 54 años. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Se analizó información de 1183 mujeres sexualmente activas que participaron en un estudio poblacional de tipo transversal en la ciudad de Hermosillo, Sonora. La asociación entre dispareunia y variables sociodemográficas, antecedentes médicos y violencia sexual se analizó usando regresión logística múltiple. RESULTADOS: La prevalencia de dispareunia durante el año previo a la encuesta fue de 12.3 por ciento (IC 95 por ciento 10.5-14.4 por ciento). Después de controlar por la ocupación, se encontró que la dispareunia estuvo asociada con mujeres jóvenes (25-34 años), antecedentes de enfermedades de transmisión sexual y/o enfermedad inflamatoria de la pelvis, infección urinaria crónica, colitis y violencia sexual. CONCLUSIÓN: Es urgente incrementar el escrutinio y la atención de la dispareunia en el contexto de los programas nacionales de salud sexual y reproductiva y en los servicios de atención primaria a la salud.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of dyspareunia among women aged 25-54 and its associated risk factors. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A cross-sectional population-based study was carried out in the city of Hermosillo, Sonora and data from 1183 sexually active women were analyzed. A multiple logistic regression was computed to analyze the association between dyspareunia and sociodemographic characteristics, medical conditions and sexual violence. RESULTS: The 12-month prevalence of dyspareunia was estimated to be 12.3 percent (95 percent CI 10.5, 14.4). After adjustment for working conditions, dyspareunia was associated with younger ages (25-34 years), history of sexually transmitted diseases/pelvic inflammatory disease, chronic urinary tract infections, colitis and history of sexual violence. CONCLUSION: Increased attention to this condition by reproductive health programs and primary care services is urgently needed in Mexico.

[Infant mortality and urban marginalization: a spatial analysis of their relationship in a medium-sized city in northwest Mexico]. / Mortalidad infantil y marginación urbana: análisis espacial de su relación en una ciudad de tamaño medio del noroeste mexicano.

OBJECTIVE: To identify areas with high risk of infant mortality and any possible correlation with the population's socioeconomic status through the use of a geographic information system and spacial analysis techniques. METHODS: An exploratory ecologic study was conducted in Hermosillo, the capital of Sonora, Mexico, in 2000-2003. The urban marginalization index (UMI) and the infant mortality rate (IMR) were determined for each of the city's basic geostatistical areas (BGA). The UMI and IMR were statistically calculated to identify geographic areas in which they were concentrated and to determine the degree of spatial correlation between these indicators. To determine the general spatial autocorrelation and spatial clustering of UMIs and IMRs within the city and the BGAs, Morans I index, Ipop statistics, and Besag and Newell's method were employed. RESULTS: The mean IMR was 14.3 per 1,000 live births, higher in the BGAs with greater social marginalization (16.2 per 1,000) and lower in those with less (11.7 per 1,000). The UMI range was -3.1-6.6 (maximum: 4.3; minimum: -2.7). Autocorrelation was found among the UMI (Moran I = 0.62), with significant clustering in the city's northwest, northeast, and southeast parts. Local clustering of high IMRs was found in Hermosillo's central and western areas, albeit without autocorrelation (Moran I = -0.007). High risk areas (high IMR and high UMI) were found in the city's northwestern section. CONCLUSIONS: Spatial clusters with high IMR were found in socially marginalized areas in the northwestern part of Hermosillo, a city of medium size located in northwestern Mexico. These results, reached through a combination of spatial analysis techniques and geographic information tools can help guide interventions specifically designed for these high risk residential areas.

Mortalidad infantil y marginación urbana: análisis espacial de su relación en una ciudad de tamaño medio del noroeste mexicano / Infant mortality and urban marginalization: a spatial analysis of their relationship in a medium-sized city in northwest Mexico

OBJETIVO: Identificar las áreas de alto riesgo de mortalidad infantil y su posible correlación con el nivel socioeconómico de una población, mediante la combinación de un sistema de información geográfica y técnicas de análisis espacial. MÉTODOS: Estudio exploratorio ecológico realizado en Hermosillo, capital de Sonora, México, en 2000-2003. Para cada área geoestadística básica (AGEB) de la ciudad se calcularon el índice de marginación urbana (IMU) y la tasa de mortalidad infantil (TMI). Los IMU y las TMI se procesaron estadísticamente para identificar los puntos de concentración geográfica y determinar el grado de correlación espacial entre ambos indicadores. Para evaluar la autocorrelación espacial general y los agrupamientos espaciales de las TMI y los IMU en la ciudad y sus AGEB se emplearon el índice de Moran I, el estadístico Ipop y el método de Besag y Newell. RESULTADOS: La TMI promedio fue de 14,3 por 1000 nacidos vivos, mayor en las AGEB con alto nivel de marginación social (16,2 por 1000) y menor en las de bajo nivel (11,7 por 1000). El IMU en los AGEB varió entre -3,1 y 6,6. Se encontró autocorrelación en los IMU (Moran I = 0,62), con agrupamientos significativos en el noroeste, noreste y suroeste de la ciudad. Se observaron agrupamientos locales de elevada TMI en las zonas central y occidental de Hermosillo, aunque sin autocorrelación (Moran I = -0,007). Se identificaron áreas de alto riesgo (altas TMI y altos IMU) en el noroeste de la ciudad. CONCLUSIÓN: Se encontraron agrupamientos espaciales con altas TMI en áreas socialmente marginadas del noroeste de Hermosillo, una ciudad de tamaño medio ubicada en el noroeste de México. Estos resultados, obtenidos mediante la combinación de técnicas de análisis espacial y herramientas de los SIG pueden ayudar a dirigir intervenciones específicas hacia esas áreas residenciales de alto riesgo.

OBJECTIVE: To identify areas with high risk of infant mortality and any possible correlation with the population’s socioeconomic status through the use of a geographicinformation system and spacial analysis techniques. METHODS: An exploratory ecologic study was conducted in Hermosillo, the capital of Sonora, Mexico, in 2000-2003. The urban marginalization index (UMI) and the infantmortality rate (IMR) were determined for each of the city’s basic geostatistical areas(BGA). The UMI and IMR were statistically calculated to identify geographic areas inwhich they were concentrated and to determine the degree of spatial correlation between these indicators. To determine the general spatial autocorrelation and spatialclustering of UMIs and IMRs within the city and the BGAs, Morans I index, Ipop statistics, and Besag and Newell’s method were employed. RESULTS: The mean IMR was 14.3 per 1000 live births, higher in the BGAs withgreater social marginalization (16.2 per 1000) and lower in those with less (11.7 per 1000). The UMI range was -3.1-6.6 (maximum: 4.3; minimum: -2.7). Autocorrelation was found among the UMI (Moran I = 0.62), with significant clustering in the city’s northwest, northeast, and southeast parts. Local clustering of high IMRs was found in Hermosillo’s central and western areas, albeit without autocorrelation (Moran I = -0.007). High risk areas (high IMR and high UMI) were found in the city’s north-western section. CONCLUSIONS: Spatial clusters with high IMR were found in socially marginalizedareas in the northwestern part of Hermosillo, a city of medium size located in north-western Mexico. These results, reached through a combination of spatial analysistechniques and geographic information tools can help guide interventions specifically designed for these high risk residential areas.

Quality of cause-of-death statements and its impact on infant mortality statistics in Hermosillo, Mexico.

OBJECTIVES: This study evaluates the quality (completeness and accuracy) of cause-of-death (COD) statements in infant death certificates as entered into a vital records system and assesses its impact on infant mortality statistics in Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico. METHODS: COD statements in a systematic random sample of 200 infant death certificates were compared to their corresponding medical charts. The underlying CODs (UCODs) originally recorded in each death certificate were contrasted with those assigned by an expert reviewer. Coding for the original and "new" UCODs was based on the three-digit category of the International Classification of Diseases, 10th Revision. Measurements of agreement between the two sets of UCODs were calculated and logistic regression was performed to determine factors associated with agreement. RESULTS: Overall agreement between the original and new UCODs was 52%. Agreement was excellent for the group of deaths due to congenital malformations, deformations, and chromosomal abnormalities (kappa = 0.77); substantial for conditions originating in the perinatal period (kappa = 0.74); and poor for certain infectious and parasitic diseases, and respiratory diseases (kappa = 0.35). Overestimation (false-positive reporting) was highest (13%) for perinatal conditions, while underestimation (false-negative reporting) was highest (71%) for certain infectious and parasitic diseases, and respiratory diseases. Agreement was associated with type of UCOD (endogenous versus exogenous) and time of death. CONCLUSION: More than half (53%) of COD statements in infant death certificates in Hermosillo were inaccurately completed, which may lead to inaccurate interpretation of causes of infant mortality. Systematic assessments of the quality of COD statements may improve the quality of mortality statistics.