Proposals for chemical weapons during the American Civil War.

Proposals for chemical weapons that arose during the American Civil War are described. Most incendiary and all biological agents are excluded. The described proposals appeared primarily in periodicals or letters to government officials on both sides. The weapons were usually meant to temporarily disable enemy combatants, but some might have been lethal, and Civil War caregivers were ill-prepared to deal with the weapons' effects. Evidently, none of the proposed weapons were used. In only one instance was use against civilians mentioned. Among the agents most commonly proposed were cayenne pepper or other plant-based irritants such as black pepper, snuff, mustard, and veratria. Other suggested agents included chloroform, chlorine, hydrogen cyanide, arsenic compounds, sulfur, and acids. Proponents usually suggested that the chemicals be included in explosive artillery projectiles. Less commonly proposed vehicles of delivery included fire engines, kites, and manned balloons. Some of the proposed weapons have modern counterparts.

Quinine substitutes in the confederate army.

During the Civil War, the unreliable supply and high cost of quinine forced the Confederate Army to use alternative treatments for malaria. Many quinine substitutes were mentioned in the literature of the time, but relatively few were advocated by Confederate officials and even fewer are described in surviving records. Medical supply officers often issued substitute remedies when quinine was requisitioned. Most alternative treatments were made from indigenous plants such as dogwood, willow (a constituent of which gave rise to aspirin), and tulip tree. High hopes were held for Georgia bark, which was thought to be closely related to cinchona, from which quinine was derived. Documentation of the effectiveness of quinine substitutes is scanty but is most plentiful for the external application of turpentine. The quinine substitutes were generally considered useful but not as effective as quinine. The Confederate Surgeon General's Office was active in seeking out and supplying troops with quinine substitutes.

The Confederate medical laboratories.

During the Civil War, the scarcity and expense of imported drugs forced the Confederate Army to establish several medical laboratories to manufacture drugs for military use. The laboratories produced medicines from indigenous plants and also made non-plant-based drugs. The Confederate Surgeon General and the Chief Purveyor in Richmond, VA, coordinated activities of most of the laboratories. The laboratories employed talented and resourceful personnel and manufactured a large volume and wide variety of drugs, the most useful of which included ether, chloroform, and opiates. The pharmaceutical quality of the laboratories' output was evidently uneven. Empirical testing in military hospitals helped determine the clinical value of indigenous remedies. The Confederate medical laboratories participated in a coordinated effort to supply the Army with substitutes for drugs whose availability was curtailed or uncertain.