Trans-eyelid distribution of epinastine to the conjunctiva following eyelid application in rabbits.

PURPOSE: To reveal the penetration of epinastine, an anti-allergic ophthalmic agent, into the eyelid and its distribution to the conjunctiva after administration of a cream formulation on rabbit eyelid skin. STUDY DESIGN: Experimental study. METHODS: Rabbits were treated with 0.5% epinastine cream on hair-shaved eyelids, followed by preparation of eyelid tissue slices to determine spatial tissue distribution of epinastine by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) quantification using laser-microdissected tissues and desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry imaging (DESI-MSI). In addition, following either eyelid application of 0.5% epinastine cream or ocular instillation of 0.1% epinastine eye drops, concentration-time profiles of epinastine in the palpebral conjunctiva and bulbar conjunctiva were determined using LC-MS/MS. RESULTS: Laser microdissection coupled with LC-MS/MS analysis detected high concentrations of epinastine around the outermost layer of the eyelid at 0.5 h post-administration that gradually diffused deeper into the eyelid and was distributed in the conjunctival layer at 8 and 24 h post-administration. Similar time-dependent drug distribution was observed in high-spatial-resolution images obtained using DESI-MSI. Epinastine concentrations in the conjunctival tissues peaked at 4-8 h after administration of 0.5% epinastine cream and then decreased slowly over 72 h post-administration. In contrast, epinastine concentrations peaked quickly and decreased sharply after epinastine eye drop administration. CONCLUSION: After the application of epinastine cream to the eyelid skin, epinastine gradually permeated the eyelid. The compound was retained in the conjunctiva for 8-24 h post-administration, indicating that epinastine cream is a promising long-acting formulation for treating allergic conjunctivitis.

Self-association status-dependent inactivation of the endoplasmic reticulum stress sensor Ire1 by C-terminal tagging with artificial peptides.

Upon endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, eukaryotic cells commonly induce unfolded protein response (UPR), which is triggered, at least partly, by the ER stress sensor Ire1. Upon ER stress, Ire1 is dimerized or forms oligomeric clusters, resulting in the activation of Ire1 as an endoribonuclease. In ER-stressed Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells, HAC1 mRNA is spliced by Ire1 and then translated into a transcription factor that promotes the UPR. Herein, we report that Ire1 tagged artificially with irrelevant peptides at the C terminus is almost completely inactive when only dimerized, while it induced the UPR as well as untagged Ire1 when clustered. This finding suggests a fundamental difference between the dimeric and clustered forms of Ire1. By comparing UPR levels in S. cerevisiae cells carrying artificially peptide-tagged Ire1 to that in cells carrying untagged Ire1, we estimated the self-association status of Ire1 under various ER stress conditions.

Induction of the Unfolded Protein Response at High Temperature in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Ire1 is an endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-located endoribonuclease that is activated in response to ER stress. In yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells, Ire1 promotes HAC1-mRNA splicing to remove the intron sequence from the HAC1u mRNA ("u" stands for "uninduced"). The resulting mRNA, which is named HAC1i mRNA ("i" stands for "induced"), is then translated into a transcription factor that is involved in the unfolded protein response (UPR). In this study, we designed an oligonucleotide primer that specifically hybridizes to the exon-joint site of the HAC1i cDNA. This primer allowed us to perform real-time reverse transcription-PCR to quantify HAC1i mRNA abundance with high sensitivity. Using this method, we detected a minor induction of HAC1-mRNA splicing in yeast cells cultured at their maximum growth temperature of 39 °C. Based on our analyses of IRE1-gene mutant strains, we propose that when yeast cells are cultured at or near their maximum growth temperature, protein folding in the ER is disturbed, leading to a minor UPR induction that supports cellular growth.

SREBP-2 negatively regulates FXR-dependent transcription of FGF19 in human intestinal cells.

Sterol regulatory element-binding protein-2 (SREBP-2) is a basic helix-loop-helix-leucine zipper transcription factor that positively regulates transcription of target genes involved in cholesterol metabolism. In the present study, we have investigated a possible involvement of SREBP-2 in human intestinal expression of fibroblast growth factor (FGF)19, which is an endocrine hormone involved in the regulation of lipid and glucose metabolism. Overexpression of constitutively active SREBP-2 decreased FGF19 mRNA levels in human colon-derived LS174T cells. In reporter assays, active SREBP-2 overexpression suppressed GW4064/FXR-mediated increase in reporter activities in regions containing the IR-1 motif (+848 to +5200) in the FGF19 gene. The suppressive effect disappeared in reporter activities in the region containing the IR-1 motif when the mutation was introduced into the IR-1 motif. In electrophoretic mobility shift assays, binding of the FXR/retinoid X receptor α heterodimer to the IR-1 motif was attenuated by adding active SREBP-2, but SREBP-2 binding to the IR-1 motif was not observed. In chromatin immunoprecipitation assays, specific binding of FXR to the IR-1-containing region of the FGF19 gene (+3214 to +3404) was increased in LS174T cells by treatment with cholesterol and 25-hydroxycholesterol. Specific binding of SREBP-2 to FXR was observed in glutathione-S-transferase (GST) pull-down assays. These results suggest that SREBP-2 negatively regulates the FXR-mediated transcriptional activation of the FGF19 gene in human intestinal cells.

Involvement of multiple elements in FXR-mediated transcriptional activation of FGF19.

The intestinal endocrine hormone human fibroblast growth factor 19 (FGF19) is involved in the regulation of not only hepatic bile acid metabolism but also carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. In the present study, bile acid/farnesoid X receptor (FXR) responsiveness in the FGF19 promoter region was investigated by a reporter assay using the human colon carcinoma cell line LS174T. The assay revealed the presence of bile acid/FXR-responsive elements in the 5'-flanking region up to 8.8 kb of FGF19. Deletion analysis indicated that regions from -1866 to -1833, from -1427 to -1353, and from -75 to +262 were involved in FXR responsiveness. Four, four, and two consecutive half-sites of nuclear receptors were observed in the three regions, respectively. An electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay revealed FXR/retinoid X receptor α (RXRα) heterodimer binding in these three regions. EMSA and reporter assays using mutated constructs indicated that the nuclear receptor IR1, ER2, and DR8 motifs in the 5'-flanking region were involved in FXR responsiveness of FGF19. Lithocholic acid (LCA) (10 µM), chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA) (10 µM), or GW4064 (0.1 µM) treatment increased reporter activity in a construct including the three motifs under FXR-expressing conditions whereas LCA and not CDCA or GW4064 treatment increased the reporter activity under pregnane X receptor (PXR)-expressing conditions. These results suggest that FGF19 is transcriptionally activated through multiple FXR-responsive elements in the promoter region.