Development of the Psychotherapist Character Virtues (PCV) Interview.

OBJECTIVE: To develop an interview-based rating method for assessing therapists' beneficial character traits and evaluate its reliability and validity. METHOD: The semi-structured Psychotherapist Character Virtues (PCV) interview and evaluation method, based on Erik Erikson's and Heinz Kohut's writings on 16 virtues or abilities and achievements of an adult self, was administered to 68 psychodynamic and solution-focused therapists. Inter-rater reliability was assessed based on 20 videorecorded interviews, rated by two evaluators. In a mixed-methods design, validity was investigated against (i) therapist's questionnaire-based self-reported professional and personal background characteristics and (ii) a qualitative content analysis of emotional atmosphere in the interview. RESULTS: Interrater reliability for individual 16 virtues was acceptable (median correlation .72). From individual virtues, three principal components (Creative Will, Empathy, and Love/Care) emerged with good/excellent internal consistency (component determinacies .95, .85, and .90, respectively) and criterion validity with self-reported professional and personal characteristics. Cluster analysis of therapists' component scores yielded six different therapist character profiles. In qualitative analysis, character profiles meaningfully differed in their impact on the interview's emotional atmosphere. CONCLUSION: PCV appears promising for evaluating therapists' character virtues, posited to undergird therapists' sensitive attunement and responsiveness. Further research is needed on PCV's predictive validity for therapeutic relationships and outcomes.

The effect of individual short- and long-term psychotherapy on perceived social support: analysis of secondary outcomes of a randomized clinical trial.

PURPOSE: Social support is important for maintaining and restoring psychological well-being but the effects of individual psychotherapies on perceived social support are not well known. In this analysis of secondary outcomes from a randomized clinical study, we compared the effects of long-term psychotherapy and two short-term psychotherapies on social support during a 5-year follow-up. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Altogether 326 adult outpatients suffering from depressive and/or anxiety disorders were randomly assigned to long-term psychodynamic psychotherapy (LPP, n = 126), short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy (SPP, n = 101) and solution-focused therapy (SFT, n = 97). Outcome was measured by the global index and six subscores of the self-reported Brief Inventory of Social Support and Integration scale (BISSI) at baseline and at 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 years after the beginning of the therapy. RESULTS: Social support improved in all therapy groups and the improvement was relatively stable, lasting several years after the end of therapy. Little difference in improvement was observed either between therapy orientations or durations. CONCLUSIONS: While no major differences were observed between treatment groups, the slight differences call for further research to verify these findings and to better understand how different therapies may improve perceived social support.

Mediators of Outcome in Trauma-Focused Psychotherapy with Youth: A Systematic Review.

This article aimed to provide a systematic narrative synthesis of existing studies on the mediators of change in psychotherapy with adolescents (10-19 years) and transition age youth (TAY) (20-29 years) who have experienced trauma-related symptoms or posttraumatic disorder. Additionally, we were interested in identifying psychotherapy-, trauma type-, and clients' age- and gender-specific mediators of treatment outcome. Following the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses, a total of 3,723 studies published in PubMed and PsycINFO databases were screened against inclusion criteria, revealing 15 eligible studies. No studies with only TAY were found; therefore, all results were limited to therapy with adolescents. Cognitive mediators were tested in 66% of selected studies, followed by parents/family-related, mental-health-related, therapy-related, and behavioral mediators. Moderate evidence was found for posttraumatic cognitions, whereas therapeutic alliance seemed to be a promising candidate for future research. Striking absence of non-cognitive-behavioral therapy interventions, emotional and adolescent-specific mediators, as well as studies with males and in non-Western societies was evident. Future original studies would benefit from applying methodological rigor in respect to mediation testing.

Mediators of outcome in adolescent psychotherapy and their implications for theories and mechanisms of change: a systematic review.

Psychotherapeutic treatment of adolescents requires age-specific approaches and thus plausibly also involves different change mechanisms than adult psychotherapy. To guide further research and improve therapeutic outcomes for adolescents, we reviewed all RCTs investigating mechanisms of change in the psychological treatment of adolescents to identify the most promising age-, disorder- or treatment-specific mediators. Following the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews (PRISMA), 106 studies were included that reported 252 statistical mediation tests assessed with 181 different measures. Most often studied and significant mediators were cognitive, followed by family-related, and behavioral variables. Several mediators were identified to be promising for future investigations: changes in negative thoughts, dysfunctional beliefs and metacognitive skills; family functioning and parenting skills; as well as successful engagement in therapy activities and increased impulse control. Symptom change during therapy was least often a mediator for other therapeutic changes. Relational and emotional mediators were largely understudied, whereas peer-influence appeared a promising mediator for intervention outcomes. Adolescence-specific mediators were most commonly investigated. Majority of studied mediators were not disorder-specific. There was a tendency to mainly test change mechanisms of specific theoretical models without considering other possible change theories. Further, virtually no studies fulfilled all criteria for rigorously investigating mediation and only nine were classified with an overall good study quality. While bearing in mind the current limitations in study designs, methodological rigor and reporting, there appears to be substantial evidence for transdiagnostic age-specific change models in the psychological treatment of adolescents. For future research, need for consensus on a core set of transdiagnostic and transtheoretical mediators and measures is highlighted. These should address likely core mechanisms of change, as well as take into account age-relevant developmental challenges and biological markers.

What Works for Whom: Patients' Psychological Resources and Vulnerabilities as Common and Specific Predictors of Working Alliance in Different Psychotherapies.

Background: Across different types of psychotherapy, one of the most robust predictors of better therapeutic outcomes is a good working alliance between patient and therapist. Yet there is little comparative research on whether particular patients more likely achieve a better alliance in certain treatments which represent particular therapeutic approaches or durations. Methods: 326 patients suffering from depressive and/or anxiety disorder were randomized into two short-term (solution-focused or psychodynamic) and one long-term (psychodynamic) therapy models. Treatments lasted ~7 and 36 months, respectively. Before randomization, patients were assessed with the interview-based Suitability for Psychotherapy Scale and filled Childhood Family Atmosphere and Life Orientation Test questionnaires. Patients filled Working Alliance Inventory after 3rd therapy session and at end of treatment; the long-term therapy patients, additionally, at 7 months' time point. Linear regression models were used. Results: Greater psychological resources (e.g., capacity for self-reflection, affect regulation, flexible interaction) had little effect on alliance during the course of the short-term therapies. However, they did predict better working alliances at end of long-term as opposed to short-term therapy. Childhood adversities impacted alliances already at 7 months. Conclusions: Although patients with certain qualities achieve better alliances in long-term as opposed to short-term therapies, apparently the theoretical orientation of therapy makes little difference. For patients with childhood adversities, differences between long-term (psychodynamic) treatment vs. various brief therapy models may be particularly salient.

Psychotherapist Trainees' Quality of Life: Patterns and Correlates.

While psychotherapists are trained to improve their clients' quality of life, little work has examined the quality of life experienced by psychotherapist trainees themselves. Yet their life satisfactions and stresses would plausibly affect both their ability to learn new skills and conduct psychotherapy. Therefore, in the Society for Psychotherapy Research Interest Section on Psychotherapist Development and Training study, we investigated the patterns of self-reported life quality and their correlates in a multinational sample of 1,214 psychotherapist trainees. A comprehensive questionnaire was used at the outset of trainings to assess trainees' professional background, current life situation, personal characteristics, family background, and social and national origin. The findings indicated 54.3% of trainees' lives could be characterized as fortunate or happy (i.e., experiencing great life satisfaction and not much stress), whereas 14.3% could be characterized as clearly distressed or troubled (i.e., experiencing great life stress and not much satisfaction). The strongest correlates of high life stress, a contributor to poor life quality, were economic insecurity, self-protectiveness, and attachment-related anxiety in relationships, and economic or psychological hardship in childhood. In turn, greater wellbeing was most strongly associated with a warm and open interpersonal style, being married, having sufficient economic means, and material and emotional security in childhood. While the results indicate the majority of therapists experience a relatively good quality of life, the findings also suggest potential targets for increasing trainees' life quality when it may be deficient, such as those on a societal level (e.g., availability of low-cost student loans), training program level (e.g., promoting supportive supervision, positive between-trainee relationships and group collaboration), and individual level (e.g., personal therapy and learning self-care), in order to promote effective learning and therapy practice.

Ego Impairment Index (EII-2) as a predictor of outcome in short- and long-term psychotherapy during a 5-year follow-up.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the predictive ability of the Rorschach-based Ego Impairment Index (EII-2) on outcome of psychotherapy in different types and durations of therapy. METHOD: A total of 326 outpatients suffering from depressive or anxiety disorders were randomized into receiving solution-focused (n = 97), short-term psychodynamic (n = 101), or long-term psychodynamic psychotherapy (n = 128). Psychotherapy outcome assessments during the 5-year follow-up period covered psychiatric symptoms, social functioning, and work ability. RESULTS: Lower EII-2 values, which indicate less problematic ego functioning, were found to predict faster improvement in both short-term therapies as compared to long-term psychotherapy. CONCLUSION: The results provide preliminary support for the utility of EII-2 as a complementary measure to interview-based methods for selecting between short- and long-term therapies.

Mediators and Theories of Change in Psychotherapy for Young People With Personality Disorders: A Systematic Review Protocol.

Background: Personality disorders (PDs) are a severe health issue already prevalent among adolescents and young adults. Early detection and intervention offer the opportunity to reduce disease burden and chronicity of symptoms and to enhance long-term functional outcomes. While psychological treatments for PDs have been shown to be effective for young people, the mediators and specific change mechanisms of treatment are still unclear. Aim: As part of the "European Network of Individualized Psychotherapy Treatment of Young People with Mental Disorders" (TREATme), funded by the European Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST), we will conduct a systematic review to summarize the existing knowledge on mediators of treatment outcome and theories of change in psychotherapy for young people with personality disorders. In particular, we will evaluate whether mediators appear to be common or specific to particular age groups, treatment models, or outcome domains (e.g., psychosocial functioning, life quality, and adverse treatment effects). Method: We will follow the reporting guidelines of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement recommendations. Electronic databases (PubMed and PsycINFO) have been systematically searched for prospective, longitudinal, and case-control designs of psychological treatment studies, which examine mediators published in English. Participants will be young people between 10 and 30years of age who suffer from subclinical personality symptoms or have a personality disorder diagnosis and receive an intervention that aims at preventing, ameliorating, and/or treating psychological problems. Results: The results will be published in a peer-reviewed journal and at conference presentations and will be shared with relevant stakeholder groups. The data set will be made available to other research groups following recommendations of the open science initiative. Databases with the systematic search will be made openly available following open science initiatives. The review has been registered in PROSPERO (evaluation is pending, registration number ID 248959). Implications: This review will deliver a comprehensive overview on the empirical basis to contribute to the further development of psychological treatments for young people with personality disorders.

Mediators in Psychological Treatments for Anxiety and Depression in Adolescents and Young People: A Protocol of a Systematic Review.

INTRODUCTION: Anxiety and depressive disorders are a significant problem that starts in childhood or adolescence and should be addressed early to avoid chronic mental conditions. There is strong evidence to demonstrate that psychological treatments are effective for these disorders, however, little is known on mediators and mechanisms of change of psychological treatment in adolescents and young adults. Understanding the pathways through which psychological treatments operate will facilitate more effective treatments. AIM: We aim to conduct a systematic review, exploring the available evidence on mediators of psychological treatments for anxiety and depression in adolescents and young adults. METHODS: A systematic search has been performed on PubMed and PsycINFO databases to identify studies from inception to 23rd February 2020. Eligible studies include randomized controlled trials and trials (quasi-experimental) designs that have enrolled adolescents and young adults presenting with depression and/or anxiety and that have examined mediators of psychological treatments. A group of 20 reviewers from the COST-Action TREATme (CA16102) divided into 10 pairs independently screen studies for inclusion, extract information from the included studies, and assess the methodological quality of the included studies and the requirements for mediators. The methodological quality will be assessed by The Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool. Extracted data from the included studies will be collected and presented using a narrative approach. DISCUSSION: This systematic review will summarize and provide a comprehensive overview of the current evidence on mediators of psychological treatments for anxiety and depression for adolescents and young adults. Results will allow the identification of strategies to optimize intervention to enhance clinical outcomes. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: Ethics approval is not required. Findings from this systematic review will be published in a peer-reviewed journal and disseminated at conferences and meetings. PROSPERO registration number: CRD42021234641.

Mediators and theories of change in psychotherapy with adolescents: a systematic review protocol.

INTRODUCTION: Approximately 75% of mental disorders emerge before the age of 25 years but less than half receive appropriate treatment. Little is known about the mechanisms underlying the therapeutic change of adolescents in psychotherapy. The 'European Network of Individualised Psychotherapy Treatment of Young People with Mental Disorders', funded by the European Cooperation in Science and Technology, will conduct the first systematic review to summarise the existing knowledge on mediators and theories of change in psychotherapy for adolescents. METHOD: A systematic review will be conducted, conforming to the reporting guidelines of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses statement recommendations. Electronic databases (PubMed and PsycINFO) have been systematically searched on 23 February 2020, for prospective, longitudinal and case-control designs which examine mediators of change. Participants will be adolescents between 10 and 19 years of age who suffer from a mental disorder or psychological difficulties and receive an intervention that aims at preventing, ameliorating and/or treating psychological problems. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: Ethical approval is not required for this systematic review as no primary data will be collected. The results will be published in a peer-reviewed journals and at conference presentations and will be shared with stakeholder groups. The whole data set will be offered to other research groups following recommendations of the open science initiative. Databases with the systematic search will be made openly available following open science initiatives. PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER: CRD42020177535.

Predicting improvement of work ability in modalities of short- and long-term psychotherapy: The differential impact of reflective ability and other aspects of patient suitability.

OBJECTIVES: We investigated how patients' psychological capacities to engage in psychotherapy predict changes in work ability in short- and long-term psychotherapy. METHODS: A cohort study of 326 patients, aged 20-46 years and suffering from mood and anxiety disorders, treated by short-term solution-focused, short-term psychodynamic, or long-term psychodynamic psychotherapy, followed-up for 5 years. The Suitability for Psychotherapy Scale, assessed at baseline, was the predictor. Outcomes were assessed at baseline and at six follow-up occasions using the Work Ability Index as the primary indicator. RESULTS: Patients with good pretreatment psychological suitability for psychotherapy, good reflective ability in particular, improved more than patients with poor suitability in short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy. Comparisons between therapy groups showed poorer suitability to predict more improvement in solution-focused and in long-term psychodynamic psychotherapy than in short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy. CONCLUSION: Patients' psychological suitability for psychotherapy has a different impact on work ability in different therapy modalities and durations.

Learning Processes and Acquisition of Knowledge and Skills in Training and Supervision of Psychotherapy and Counselling: A Study Protocol for a Scoping Review.

Background: Increased awareness of the individual therapist's vital contribution to treatment processes and outcome, and the potential role of training and supervision in this respect, warrants a close look at the empirical and theoretical literature on teaching and learning of therapists and counselors. Methods: A scoping review of the literature will be conducted based on an overarching research question: when authors have reported on learning processes and acquisition of knowledge and skills in psychotherapy/counseling and supervision/training literature over the past 30 years (since 1990), what evidence, concepts, theories, and models have they reported? A comprehensive search strategy is carried out to identify publications indexed in Scopus, PsycINFO, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials. Publications will be sorted according to four categories: (1) conceptual/theoretical; (2) empirical (quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods); (3) review, meta-synthesis or -analysis; (4) training program/model description. Procedures for the upcoming scoping review of conceptual/theoretical, empirical, and training program/model description publications will be outlined. Conclusion: Besides clarifying existing perspectives, practices, and evidence, and documenting the shifting trends of the field during the past three decades, this scoping review identifies knowledge gaps that point to vital future directions for research and theory development. Moreover, the comprehensive scoping lays the foundation for subsequent, more focused systematic reviews that address identified key research topics more specifically.

Theories of Change and Mediators of Psychotherapy Effectiveness in Adolescents With Externalising Behaviours: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: Externalising behaviours are becoming a remarkably prevalent problem during adolescence, often precipitating both externalising and internalising disorders in later adulthood. Psychological treatments aim to increase the social functioning of adolescents in order for them to live a more balanced life and prevent these negative trajectories. However, little is known of the intervening variables and mediators involved in these treatments' change mechanisms. We conducted a systematic review, exploring the available evidence on mediators of psychological treatments for externalising behaviours and symptoms amongst adolescents (10 to 19 years old). METHODS: A systematic search was performed on Medline and PsycINFO databases, which identified studies from inception to February 23, 2020. Eligible studies included randomised controlled trials that enrolled adolescents with externalising symptoms and behaviours as, at least, one of the primary outcomes. A group of 20 reviewers from the COST-Action TREATme (CA16102) were divided into 10 pairs. Each pair independently screened studies for inclusion, extracted information from the included studies, and assessed the methodological quality of the included studies and the requirements for mediators, following Kazdin's criteria. Risk of bias of RCTs was assessed by the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool. Extracted data from the included studies were reported using a narrative synthesis. RESULTS: Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines (PRISMA), after removing duplicates, 3,660 articles were screened. Disagreements were resolved by consensus. In a second stage, 965 full-text articles were assessed for eligibility. A total of 14 studies fulfilled all inclusion criteria. The majority were related to systemic psychological treatment approaches. Two types of mediators were identified as potentially being involved in the mechanisms of change for better social improvements of adolescents: to increase healthier parent-adolescent relationships and parental discipline. However, there were significant and non-significant results amongst the same mediators, which led to discussing the results tentatively. CONCLUSIONS: Family variables were found to be the largest group of investigated mediators, followed by relational, behavioural, and emotional variables. No cognitive or treatment-specific mediators were identified. Both adequate behavioural control of adolescents' peer behaviour and a better positive balance in their relationships with their parents seemed to buffer the effects of externalising behaviours in adolescents. Several methodological limitations concerning mediation testing design, outcome measures, and mediator selection have been identified. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: Ethical approval was not required. PROSPERO registration number: CRD42021231835.

Evaluating a novel formula for noninvasive estimation of arterial carbon dioxide during post-resuscitation care.

BACKGROUND: Controlling arterial carbon dioxide is paramount in mechanically ventilated patients, and an accurate and continuous noninvasive monitoring method would optimize management in dynamic situations. In this study, we validated and further refined formulas for estimating partial pressure of carbon dioxide with respiratory gas and pulse oximetry data in mechanically ventilated cardiac arrest patients. METHODS: A total of 4741 data sets were collected retrospectively from 233 resuscitated patients undergoing therapeutic hypothermia. The original formula used to analyze the data is PaCO2 -est1 = PETCO2  + k[(PIO2  - PETCO2 ) - PaO2 ]. To achieve better accuracy, we further modified the formula to PaCO2 -est2 = k1 *PETCO2  + k2 *(PIO2  - PETCO2 ) + k3 *(100-SpO2 ). The coefficients were determined by identifying the minimal difference between the measured and calculated arterial carbon dioxide values in a development set. The accuracy of these two methods was compared with the estimation of the partial pressure of carbon dioxide using end-tidal carbon dioxide. RESULTS: With PaCO2 -est1, the mean difference between the partial pressure of carbon dioxide, and the estimated carbon dioxide was 0.08 kPa (SE ±0.003); with PaCO2 -est2 the difference was 0.036 kPa (SE ±0.009). The mean difference between the partial pressure of carbon dioxide and end-tidal carbon dioxide was 0.72 kPa (SE ±0.01). In a mixed linear model, there was a significant difference between the estimation using end-tidal carbon dioxide and PaCO2 -est1 (P < .001) and PaCO2 -est2 (P < .001) respectively. CONCLUSIONS: This novel formula appears to provide an accurate, continuous, and noninvasive estimation of arterial carbon dioxide.

The role of pre-treatment interpersonal problems for in-session emotional processing and long-term outcome in emotion-focused psychotherapy.

Objective: Interpersonal problems may lead to, uphold, or follow from depression. However, we know little of how depressed patients' different interpersonal problems are associated with patients' emotional processing during psychotherapy and whether distinct processes are helpful for their long-term reduction. Method: 23 adult outpatients who received emotion-focused therapies lasting 16-20 sessions filled the Inventory of Interpersonal Problems at pre- and post-treatment and 18-month follow-up. These problems were related to emotional processing in two mid-therapy sessions, rated by observers with the Classification of Affective-Meaning States. Results: All pre-treatment interpersonal problems were clearly associated with patients' negative evaluations of themselves during therapy. Self-experiences of vindictiveness were most pronouncedly linked to in-session emotional expressions of rejecting anger, and self-experiences of social inhibition to expressions of fear and shame, following a circumplex model. In the long-term reduction of interpersonal problems, especially reaching emotional states of hurt and grief seemed beneficial for patients who experienced themselves as socially inhibited, non-assertive, self-sacrificing, or overly accommodating. Conclusions: For clients suffering from particular interpersonal problems, accessing particularly beneficial emotional processes, such as hurt and grief, may form specific therapeutic process goals. Further studies should verify these findings, which link interpersonal theory with research on emotional processing in psychotherapy.

The professional and personal characteristics of effective psychotherapists: a systematic review.

Objective: Psychotherapists differ notably in the outcomes their patients achieve, and the characteristics that may explain these differences have attracted increasing interest. We systematically review studies on therapist pre-treatment characteristics predicting patient outcomes. Method: Systematic searches on databases for psychotherapy research, clinical psychology, and medical science for the years 2000-2018 identified published research examining therapist characteristics and psychotherapy outcomes. Of 2041 studies, 31 met inclusion criteria. Results: Findings show a few direct effects of therapist intrapersonal variables (e.g., self-relatedness, attachment) and several interaction effects with other constructs (e.g., patient pathology) on outcome. There is little support for the relevance of self-rated social skills. However, more consistent evidence has recently emerged for performance-based measurements of professional interpersonal skills, especially when elicited in challenging situations. Patient outcomes were also predicted by therapists' self-rated professional characteristics, such as their experienced difficulties in practice, coping mechanisms, and attitudes towards therapeutic work, indicating that therapist self-perception also matters, although not always in the direction expected. Conclusions: More effective therapists seem characterized by professionally cultivated interpersonal capacities, which are likely rooted in their personal lives and attachment history. Research guidelines are proposed for moving this field forward (including larger samples, multilevel modeling, and in-depth qualitative work).

Interpersonal agency as predictor of the within-patient alliance effects on depression severity.

OBJECTIVE: Several studies have reported significant within-patient effects of the therapeutic alliance on outcome. However, it remains uncertain whether there are specific patient groups for whom an improved alliance might be particularly beneficial. The relational nature of the alliance makes patients' interpersonal problems a promising candidate for examining such differential effects. This study aims to analyze (i) between- and within-patient effects of the alliance on depression severity, (ii) the effects of patients' baseline interpersonal problems on the within-patient alliance-outcome association, and (iii) whether within-patient effects of the alliance remain significant when adjusting for patients' initial interpersonal problems. METHOD: A sample of 141 patients with depression and undergoing outpatient psychotherapy completed the Inventory of Interpersonal Problems at baseline as well as a brief version of the Working Alliance Inventory and the Well-Being Index (as a proxy of depression severity) session by session. RESULTS: Multilevel models revealed both significant between- and within-patient effects of the alliance on improvements in depression severity. Patients' problems relating to agency had a significant effect on the within-patient effect of alliance, with more submissive patients benefiting more from an improved therapeutic alliance. Finally, the between- and within-patient effects of the alliance remained significant when adjusting for the patients' agentic interpersonal problems and treatment condition. CONCLUSIONS: The results provide evidence on which types of patients would particularly benefit from an improved therapeutic alliance. For patients suffering from low interpersonal agency and reporting problems with submissiveness, an enhanced alliance during the therapy process might improve treatment outcome. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

The personal self of psychotherapists: Dimensions, correlates, and relations with clients.

OBJECTIVE: The personal self of psychotherapists, that is, experiences of self in close personal relationships and its association with therapists' individual and professional attributes is explored. The study aimed to: (a) describe therapists' self-ratings on specific self-attributes; (b) determine their dimensionality; (c) explore demographic, psychological, and professional correlates; and (d) assess the convergence with professional self. METHOD: Data from the Development of Psychotherapists Common Core Questionnaire were available for > 10,000 psychotherapists of various professions, theoretical orientations, career levels, and nations. RESULTS: Most psychotherapists described themselves in close relationships in affirming terms (e.g., warm/friendly), although a substantial minority also described themselves in negative terms. Factor analyses yielded four dimensions: Genial/Caring, Forceful/Exacting, Reclusive/Remote, and Ardent/Expressive. Being Genial/Caring was associated with life satisfaction. Among professional attributes, personal self-experiences, and parallel dimensions of relationship with clients correlated strongly. CONCLUSIONS: Analyses of > 10,000 psychotherapists revealed meaningful variations in personal self relevant to personal and professional life.

Offering patients opportunities to reveal their subjective experiences in psychiatric assessment interviews.

OBJECTIVE: With the intention of understanding the dynamics of psychiatric interviews, we investigated the usual (DSM/ICD-based) psychiatric assessment process and an alternative assessment process based on a case formulation method. We compared the two different approaches in terms of the clinicians' practices for offering patients opportunities to reveal their subjective experiences. METHODS: Using qualitative and quantitative applications of conversation analysis, we compared patient-clinician interaction in five usual psychiatric assessments (AAU) with five assessment interviews based on dialogical sequence analysis (DSA). RESULTS: The frequency of conversational sequences where the patient described his/her problematic experiences was higher in the DSA interviews than in the AAU interviews. In DSA, the clinicians typically facilitated the patient's subjective experience talk by experience-focused questions and formulations, whereas in AAU, such talk typically occurred in environments where the clinicians' questions and formulations focused on non-experiential, medical matters. CONCLUSION: Interaction in DSA was organized to provide for the patient's experience-focused talk, whereas in AAU, the patient needed to go against the conversational grain to produce such talk. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: By facilitating patients' opportunities to uncover subjective experiences, it is possible to promote their individualized care planning in psychiatry.

Estimation of Arterial Carbon Dioxide Based on End-Tidal Gas Pressure and Oxygen Saturation.

Arterial blood gas (ABG) analysis is the traditional method for measuring the partial pressure of carbon dioxide. In mechanically ventilated patients a continuous noninvasive monitoring of carbon dioxide would obviously be attractive. In the current study, we present a novel formula for noninvasive estimation of arterial carbon dioxide. Eighty-one datasets were collected from 19 anesthetized and mechanically ventilated pigs. Eleven animals were mechanically ventilated without interventions. In the remaining eight pigs the partial pressure of carbon dioxide was manipulated. The new formula (Formula 1) is PaCO2 = PETCO2 + k(PETO2 - PaO2) where PaO2 was calculated from the oxygen saturation. We tested the agreements of this novel formula and compared it to a traditional method using the baseline PaCO2 - ETCO2 gap added to subsequently measured, end-tidal carbon dioxide levels (Formula 2). The mean difference between PaCO2 and calculated carbon dioxide (Formula 1) was 0.16 kPa (±SE 1.17). The mean difference between PaCO2 and carbon dioxide with Formula 2 was 0.66 kPa (±SE 0.18). With a mixed linear model excluding cases with cardiorespiratory collapse, there was a significant difference between formulae (p < 0.001), as well as significant interaction between formulae and time (p < 0.001). In this preliminary animal study, this novel formula appears to have a reasonable agreement with PaCO2 values measured with ABG analysis, but needs further validation in human patients.