In planta dynamics, transport biases, and endogenous functions of mobile siRNAs in Arabidopsis.

In RNA interference (RNAi), small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) produced from double-stranded RNA guide ARGONAUTE (AGO) proteins to silence sequence-complementary RNA/DNA. RNAi can propagate locally and systemically in plants, but despite recent advances in our understanding of the underlying mechanisms, basic questions remain unaddressed. For instance, RNAi is inferred to diffuse through plasmodesmata (PDs), yet how its dynamics in planta compares with that of established symplastic diffusion markers remains unknown. Also is why select siRNA species, or size classes thereof, are apparently recovered in RNAi recipient tissues, yet only under some experimental settings. Shootward movement of endogenous RNAi in micro-grafted Arabidopsis is also yet to be achieved, while potential endogenous functions of mobile RNAi remain scarcely documented. Here, we show (i) that temporal, localized PD occlusion in source leaves' companion cells (CCs) suffices to abrogate all systemic manifestations of CC-activated mobile transgene silencing, including in sink leaves; (ii) that the presence or absence of specific AGOs in incipient/traversed/recipient tissues likely explains the apparent siRNA length selectivity observed upon vascular movement; (iii) that stress enhancement allows endo-siRNAs of a single inverted repeat (IR) locus to translocate against the shoot-to-root phloem flow; and (iv) that mobile endo-siRNAs generated from this locus have the potential to regulate hundreds of transcripts. Our results close important knowledge gaps, rationalize previously noted inconsistencies between mobile RNAi settings, and provide a framework for mobile endo-siRNA research.

Cell-by-cell dissection of phloem development links a maturation gradient to cell specialization.

In the plant meristem, tissue-wide maturation gradients are coordinated with specialized cell networks to establish various developmental phases required for indeterminate growth. Here, we used single-cell transcriptomics to reconstruct the protophloem developmental trajectory from the birth of cell progenitors to terminal differentiation in the Arabidopsis thaliana root. PHLOEM EARLY DNA-BINDING-WITH-ONE-FINGER (PEAR) transcription factors mediate lineage bifurcation by activating guanosine triphosphatase signaling and prime a transcriptional differentiation program. This program is initially repressed by a meristem-wide gradient of PLETHORA transcription factors. Only the dissipation of PLETHORA gradient permits activation of the differentiation program that involves mutual inhibition of early versus late meristem regulators. Thus, for phloem development, broad maturation gradients interface with cell-type-specific transcriptional regulators to stage cellular differentiation.

Advances and Opportunities in Single-Cell Transcriptomics for Plant Research.

Single-cell approaches are quickly changing our view on biological systems by increasing the spatiotemporal resolution of our analyses to the level of the individual cell. The field of plant biology has fully embraced single-cell transcriptomics and is rapidly expanding the portfolio of available technologies and applications. In this review, we give an overview of the main advances in plant single-cell transcriptomics over the past few years and provide the reader with an accessible guideline covering all steps, from sample preparation to data analysis. We end by offering a glimpse of how these technologies will shape and accelerate plant-specific research in the near future.

Computational Tools for Serial Block Electron Microscopy Reveal Plasmodesmata Distributions and Wall Environments.

Plasmodesmata are small channels that connect plant cells. While recent technological advances have facilitated analysis of the ultrastructure of these channels, there are limitations to efficiently addressing their presence over an entire cellular interface. Here, we highlight the value of serial block electron microscopy for this purpose. We developed a computational pipeline to study plasmodesmata distributions and detect the presence/absence of plasmodesmata clusters, or pit fields, at the phloem unloading interfaces of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) roots. Pit fields were visualized and quantified. As the wall environment of plasmodesmata is highly specialized, we also designed a tool to extract the thickness of the extracellular matrix at and outside of plasmodesmata positions. We detected and quantified clear wall thinning around plasmodesmata with differences between genotypes, including the recently published plm-2 sphingolipid mutant. Our tools open avenues for quantitative approaches in the analysis of symplastic trafficking.

Synchronization of developmental, molecular and metabolic aspects of source-sink interactions.

Plants have evolved a multitude of strategies to adjust their growth according to external and internal signals. Interconnected metabolic and phytohormonal signalling networks allow adaption to changing environmental and developmental conditions and ensure the survival of species in fluctuating environments. In agricultural ecosystems, many of these adaptive responses are not required or may even limit crop yield, as they prevent plants from realizing their fullest potential. By lifting source and sink activities to their maximum, massive yield increases can be foreseen, potentially closing the future yield gap resulting from an increasing world population and the transition to a carbon-neutral economy. To do so, a better understanding of the interplay between metabolic and developmental processes is required. In the past, these processes have been tackled independently from each other, but coordinated efforts are required to understand the fine mechanics of source-sink relations and thus optimize crop yield. Here, we describe approaches to design high-yielding crop plants utilizing strategies derived from current metabolic concepts and our understanding of the molecular processes determining sink development.

General Approach for the Liquid-Phase Fragment Synthesis of Orthogonally Protected Naturally Occurring Polyamines and Applications Thereof.

Orthogonally protected polyamines (PAs) have been synthesized using α,ω-diamines and ω-aminoalcohols as N-Cx-N and N-Cy synthons, respectively, and the Mitsunobu reaction as the key reaction for the assembly of the PA skeleta. The Trt, Dde, and Phth groups have been employed for protecting the primary amino functions and the Ns group for activating the primary amino functions toward alkylation and secondary amino function protection. The approach has been readily extended to accommodate the total synthesis of the spider toxins Agel 416 and HO-416b, incorporating the 3-4-3-3 and the 3-3-3-4 PA skeleton, respectively.

Plant Vasculature: Selective Membrane-to-Microtubule Tethering Patterns the Xylem Cell Wall.

To introduce pits into a cell wall, plants depolymerize cortical microtubules, which prevents subsequent secondary cell wall thickening. A newly identified protein tethers microtubules to the plasma membrane and contains this breakdown to defined regions, thereby shaping these holes.

Strigolactone- and Karrikin-Independent SMXL Proteins Are Central Regulators of Phloem Formation.

Plant stem cell niches, the meristems, require long-distance transport of energy metabolites and signaling molecules along the phloem tissue. However, currently it is unclear how specification of phloem cells is controlled. Here we show that the genes SUPPRESSOR OF MAX2 1-LIKE3 (SMXL3), SMXL4, and SMXL5 act as cell-autonomous key regulators of phloem formation in Arabidopsis thaliana. The three genes form an uncharacterized subclade of the SMXL gene family that mediates hormonal strigolactone and karrikin signaling. Strigolactones are endogenous signaling molecules regulating shoot and root branching [1] whereas exogenous karrikin molecules induce germination after wildfires [2]. Both activities depend on the F-box protein and SCF (Skp, Cullin, F-box) complex component MORE AXILLARY GROWTH2 (MAX2) [3-5]. Strigolactone and karrikin perception leads to MAX2-dependent degradation of distinct SMXL protein family members, which is key for mediating hormonal effects [6-12]. However, the nature of events immediately downstream of SMXL protein degradation and whether all SMXL proteins mediate strigolactone or karrikin signaling is unknown. In this study we demonstrate that, within the SMXL gene family, specifically SMXL3/4/5 deficiency results in strong defects in phloem formation, altered sugar accumulation, and seedling lethality. By comparing protein stabilities, we show that SMXL3/4/5 proteins function differently to canonical strigolactone and karrikin signaling mediators, although being functionally interchangeable with those under low strigolactone/karrikin signaling conditions. Our observations reveal a fundamental mechanism of phloem formation and indicate that diversity of SMXL protein functions is essential for a steady fuelling of plant meristems.

Symplastic communication in organ formation and tissue patterning.

Communication between cells is a crucial step to coordinate organ formation and tissue patterning. In plants, the intercellular transport of metabolites and signalling molecules occur symplastically through membranous structures (named plasmodesmata) that traverse the cell wall to connect the cytoplasm and endoplasmic reticulum of neighbouring cells. This review aims to highlight the importance of symplastic communication in plant development. We revisit current literature reporting the effects of changing plasmodesmata in cell morphogenesis, organ initiation and meristem maintenance and comment on recent work involving the identification of novel plasmodesmata regulators and of mobile developmental proteins and RNA molecules. New opportunities for unravelling the dynamic regulation and function of plasmodesmata are also discussed.

Plant vascular development: from early specification to differentiation.

Vascular tissues in plants are crucial to provide physical support and to transport water, sugars and hormones and other small signalling molecules throughout the plant. Recent genetic and molecular studies have identified interconnections among some of the major signalling networks that regulate plant vascular development. Using Arabidopsis thaliana as a model system, these studies enable the description of vascular development from the earliest tissue specification events during embryogenesis to the differentiation of phloem and xylem tissues. Moreover, we propose a model for how oriented cell divisions give rise to a three-dimensional vascular bundle within the root meristem.

Arabidopsis Lateral Root Development 3 is essential for early phloem development and function, and hence for normal root system development.

We have identified a gene, Lateral Root Development 3 (LRD3), that is important for maintaining a balance between primary and lateral root growth. The lrd3 mutant has decreased primary root growth and increased lateral root growth. We determined that the LRD3 gene encodes a LIM-domain protein of unknown function. LRD3 is expressed only in the phloem companion cells, which suggested a role in phloem function. Indeed, while phloem loading and export from the shoot appear to be normal, delivery of phloem to the primary root tip is limited severely in young seedlings. Abnormalities in phloem morphology in these seedlings indicate that LRD3 is essential for correct early phloem development. There is a subsequent spontaneous recovery of normal phloem morphology, which is correlated tightly with increased phloem delivery and growth of the primary root. The LRD3 gene is one of very few genes described to affect phloem development, and the only one that is specific to early phloem development. Continuous growth on auxin also leads to recovery of phloem development and function in lrd3, which demonstrates that auxin plays a key role in early phloem development. The root system architecture and the pattern of phloem allocation in the lrd3 root system suggested that there may be regulated mechanisms for selectively supporting certain lateral roots when the primary root is compromised. Therefore, this study provides new insights into phloem-mediated resource allocation and its effects on plant root system architecture.

Expression of xyloglucan endotransglycosylases of Gerbera hybrida and Betula pendula in Pichia pastoris.

The plant enzyme xyloglucan endotransglycosylase (XET; EC 2.4.1.207, xyloglucan:xyloglucosyl transferase) participates in selective modification of plant cell walls during cell growth. XETs are potential catalysts in various applications. Here, sequences encoding two XETs from Gerbera hybrida and Betula pendula are reported. The encoded proteins, which are 51% identical at the amino acid level, were expressed in the yeast Pichia pastoris in secreted form with the aid of mating factor alpha signal sequence. XET production in shake flask cultivations was better at 22 degrees C than at 30 degrees C. Both the yield of protein of expected molecular mass and the XET activity improved at the lower temperature. Under all cultivation conditions studied, higher amounts of XET from B. pendula (BXET) were expressed than XET from G. hybrida (GXET). Both XET enzymes were produced in 16l fed-batch bioreactor cultures. GXET was produced in methanol-limited fed-batch cultivation in minimal medium, and BXET in temperature-limited fed-batch (TLFB) in minimal or complex medium. Production was highest in TLFB in complex medium. BXET was purified from the culture filtrate and characterized. Based on the specific activity of the purified protein, 60-70 mg l(-1) BXET was produced in the TLFB in complex medium.