The evolution of the treatment of esophageal achalasia. Chronicle of a 35-year journey.

Over the last few decades, significant improvement has been made in both the evaluation and treatment of esophageal achalasia. The Chicago classification, today in version 4.0, is now the standard for diagnosis of achalasia, providing a classification into 3 subtypes with important therapeutic and prognostic implications. Therapy, which was at first mostly limited to pneumatic dilatation, today includes minimally invasive surgery and peroral endoscopic myotomy, allowing for a more tailored approach to patients and better treatment of recurrent symptoms. This review chronicles my personal experience with achalasia over the last 35 years, describing the progress made in the treatment of patients with achalasia.

Laparoscopic heller myotomy versus peroral endoscopic myotomy for the treatment of achalasia.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: To compare different therapeutic modalities and determine their role in the treatment of esophageal achalasia. RECENT FINDINGS: The last 3 decades have seen a significant improvement in the diagnosis and treatment of esophageal achalasia. Conventional manometry has been replaced by high-resolution manometry, which has determined a more precise classification of achalasia in three subtypes, with important treatment implications. Therapy, while still palliative, has evolved tremendously. While pneumatic dilatation was for a long time the main choice of treatment, this approach slowly changed at the beginning of the nineties when minimally invasive surgery was adopted, initially thoracoscopically and then laparoscopically with the addition of partial fundoplication. And in 2010, the first report of a new endoscopic technique - peroral endoscopic myotomy (POEM) - was published, revamping the interest in the endoscopic treatment of achalasia. SUMMARY: This review focuses particularly on the comparison of POEM and laparoscopic Heller myotomy (LHM) with partial fundoplication as primary treatment modality for esophageal achalasia. Based on the available data, we believe that LHM with partial fundoplication should be the primary treatment modality in most patients. POEM should be selected when surgical expertise is not available, for type III achalasia, for the treatment of recurrent symptoms, and for patients who had prior abdominal operations that would make LHM challenging and unsafe.

MAGNETIC SPHINCTER AUGMENTATION DEVICE FOR GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX DISEASE: EFFECTIVE, BUT POSTOPERATIVE DYSPHAGIA AND RISK OF EROSION SHOULD NOT BE UNDERESTIMATED. A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW AND META-ANALYSIS.

BACKGROUND: Magnetic ring (MSA) implantation in the esophagus is an alternative surgical procedure to fundoplication for the treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease. AIMS: The aim of this study was to analyse the effectiveness and safety of magnetic sphincter augmentation (MSA) in patients with gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). METHODS: A systematic literature review of articles on MSA was performed using the Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System Online (Medline) database between 2008 and 2021, following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. A random-effect model was used to generate a pooled proportion with 95% confidence interval (CI) across all studies. RESULTS: A total of 22 studies comprising 4,663 patients with MSA were analysed. Mean follow-up was 27.3 (7-108) months. The weighted pooled proportion of symptom improvement and patient satisfaction were 93% (95%CI 83-98%) and 85% (95%CI 78-90%), respectively. The mean DeMeester score (pre-MSA: 34.6 vs. post-MSA: 8.9, p=0.03) and GERD-HRQL score (pre-MSA: 25.8 vs. post-MSA: 4.4, p<0.0001) improved significantly after MSA. The proportion of patients taking proton pump inhibitor (PPIs) decreased from 92.8 to 12.4% (p<0.0001). The weighted pooled proportions of dysphagia, endoscopic dilatation and gas-related symptoms were 18, 13, and 3%, respectively. Esophageal erosion occurred in 1% of patients, but its risk significantly increased for every year of MSA use (odds ratio - OR 1.40, 95%CI 1.11-1.77, p=0.004). Device removal was needed in 4% of patients. CONCLUSIONS: Although MSA is a very effective treatment modality for GERD, postoperative dysphagia is common and the risk of esophageal erosion increases over time. Further studies are needed to determine the long-term safety of MSA placement in patients with GERD.

Modern insights into the pathophysiology and treatment of pseudoachalasia.

BACKGROUND: Secondary achalasia or pseudoachalasia is a clinical presentation undistinguishable from achalasia in terms of symptoms, manometric, and radiographic findings, but associated with different and identifiable underlying causes. METHODS: A literature review was conducted on the PubMed database restricting results to the English language. Key terms used were "achalasia-like" with 63 results, "secondary achalasia" with 69 results, and "pseudoachalasia" with 141 results. References of the retrieved papers were also manually reviewed. RESULTS: Etiology, diagnosis, and treatment were reviewed. CONCLUSIONS: Pseudoachalasia is a rare disease. Most available evidence regarding this condition is based on case reports or small retrospective series. There are different causes but all culminating in outflow obstruction. Clinical presentation and image and functional tests overlap with primary achalasia or are inaccurate, thus the identification of secondary achalasia can be delayed. Inadequate diagnosis leads to futile therapies and could worsen prognosis, especially in neoplastic disease. Routine screening is not justifiable; good clinical judgment still remains the best tool. Therapy should be aimed at etiology. Even though Heller's myotomy brings the best results in non-malignant cases, good clinical judgment still remains the best tool as well.

BRAZILIAN HERNIA AND ABDOMINAL WALL SOCIETY STATEMENT ON LARGE HIATAL HERNIAS MANAGEMENT.

Large hiatal hernias, besides being more prevalent in the elderly, have a different clinical presentation: less reflux, more mechanical symptoms, and a greater possibility of acute, life-threatening complications such as gastric volvulus, ischemia, and visceral mediastinal perforation. Thus, surgical indications are distinct from gastroesophageal reflux disease-related sliding hiatal hernias. Heartburn tends to be less intense, while symptoms of chest pain, cough, discomfort, and tiredness are reported more frequently. Complaints of vomiting and dysphagia may suggest the presence of associated gastric volvulus. Signs of iron deficiency and anemia are found. Surgical indication is still controversial and was previously based on high mortality reported in emergency surgeries for gastric volvulus. Postoperative mortality is especially related to three factors: body mass index above 35, age over 70 years, and the presence of comorbidities. Minimally invasive elective surgery should be offered to symptomatic individuals with good or reasonable performance status, regardless of age group. In asymptomatic and oligosymptomatic patients, besides obviously identifying the patient's desire, a case-by-case analysis of surgical risk factors such as age, obesity, and comorbidities should be taken into consideration. Attention should also be paid to situations with greater technical difficulty and risks of acute migration due to increased abdominal pressure (abdominoplasty, manual labor, spastic diseases). Technical alternatives such as partial fundoplication and anterior gastropexy can be considered. We emphasize the importance of performing surgical procedures in cases of large hiatal hernias in high-volume centers, with experienced surgeons.

High-resolution 3-dimensional tomography may be a useful tool for understanding the anatomy of hiatal hernias and surgical planning of patients eligible for laparoscopic or robotic antireflux surgery.

BACKGROUND: 3D computed tomography (CT) has been seldom used for the evaluation of hiatal hernias (HH) in surgical patients. This study aims to describe the 3D CT findings in candidates for laparoscopic or robotic antireflux surgery or HH repair and compare them with other tests. METHODS: Thirty patients with HH and/or gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) who were candidates for surgical treatment and underwent high-resolution CT were recruited. The variables studied were distance from the esophagogastric junction (EGJ) to the hiatus; total gastric volume and herniated gastric volume, percentage of herniated volume in relation to the total gastric volume; diameters and area of the esophageal hiatus. RESULTS: HH was diagnosed with CT in 21 (70%) patients. There was no correlation between the distance EGJ-hiatus and the herniated gastric volume. There was a statistically significant correlation between the distance from the EGJ to the hiatus and the area of the esophageal hiatus of the diaphragm. There was correlation between tomographic and endoscopic findings for the presence and size of HH. HH was diagnosed with manometry in 9 (50%) patients. There was no correlation between tomographic and manometric findings for the diagnosis of HH and between hiatal area and lower esophageal sphincter basal pressure. There was no correlation between any parameter and DeMeester score. CONCLUSIONS: The anatomy of HH and the hiatus can be well defined by 3D CT. The EGJ-hiatus distance may be equally measured by 3D CT or upper digestive endoscopy. DeMeester score did not correlate with any anatomical parameter.

Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease After Roux-en-Y Gastric Bypass: Pathophysiology and Management.

Introduction: Patients with obesity are often affected by gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) is considered the ideal operation for patients with severe obesity and GERD. Although the majority of patients improve their reflux with the operation, some might persist symptomatic and others can even develop de novo GERD. The aim of this study was to determine pathophysiologic factors involved in the development of GERD after RYGB surgery and define potential treatments for this condition. Materials and Methods: Studies including patients with GERD before and after RYGB and/or analyzing possible GERD therapies were analyzed by the authors. Searches were conducted in PubMed, Cochrane Library, and Embase databases. Results: GERD can persist, worsen, or develop after RYGB. There are certain technical elements of the operation identified as potential risk factors for GERD. Medical therapy is effective in the majority of patients. Both endoscopic and surgical procedures can also help resolving GERD after RYGB. Conclusions: Although the majority of patients with GERD after RYGB can be effectively managed with medical therapy, some may require endoscopic or surgical treatment. Critical technical elements of RYGB should be considered to reduce the risk of postoperative GERD.

Laparoscopic Sleeve Gastrectomy Lacks Intrasurgeon and Intersurgeon Agreement in Technical Key Points That May Affect Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease After the Procedure.

PURPOSE: Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) after sleeve gastrectomy (SG) may be related to surgical technique. The fact that there is a lack of technical standardization may explain large differences in GERD incidence. The aim of this study is to evaluate auto- and hetero-agreement for SG technical key points based on recorded videos. METHODS: Ten experienced (minimum of 5 years performing bariatric surgery, minimum of 30 SG per year) bariatric surgeons (9 (90%) males) were selected. Participants were invited to send an unedited video with a typical laparoscopic SG (first round of the Delphi process). Videos were cropped into small clips comprising 11 key points of the technique. All anonymized clips (including their own) were returned to all surgeons. Individuals were asked to agree or not with the technique demonstrated (second round). The percentage of agreement was presented to the entire group that was asked for a second vote (third round). RESULTS: Agreement was poor/fair for all points except hiatal repair that had a very good agreement in the second round. For the third round, there was a slight increase in agreement for distance esophagogastric junction/proximal stapling and gastric mobilization for stapling and a slight decrease in agreement for gastric tube final shape. Only 1 (10%) surgeon recognized that he evaluated his own video. Five (50%) surgeons disagreed with themselves on 1 or more points. CONCLUSION: SG lacks intrasurgeon and intersurgeon agreement in technical key points that may justify significant differences in GERD incidence after the procedure.

High-Resolution Manometry Contributions to the Physiology of Phonation

High-resolution manometry (HRM) is a motility diagnostic system that measures intraluminal pressure of the gastrointestinal tract using a series of closely spaced pressure sensors. The topographic plot generated by HRM software makes it possible to visualize phonation pressures at the pharynx, UES, and body of the esophagus in real time, indicating pressure intensity by color, which permits easy data interpretation. It has been largely used for swallowing study and dysphagia diagnosis. Due to the proximity of the pharyngoesophageal and laryngeal structures, this technology instigated voice researchers. Despite the few studies published so far, high-resolution manometry has yet proven to be an extremely useful tool in obtaining entire pharyngoesophageal segment pressure measurements during phonation. It also allows natural voice production not interfering with the mouth area. HRM data already brought light to subglottic pressure, vertical laryngeal excursion, cricopharyngeal muscle activation, air flow, muscle tension associated with vocalization and pressure variations associated with different phonatory stimuli.

La manometría de alta resolución (HRM, por sus siglas en inglés) es un sistema de diagnóstico de motilidad que mide la presión intraluminal del tracto gastrointestinal mediante una serie de sensores de presión dispuestos de manera cercana. El gráfico topográfico generado por el software de HRM permite visualizar las presiones de fonación en la faringe, el EEI y el cuerpo del esófago en tiempo real, indicando la intensidad de la presión mediante colores que facilitan la interpretación de los datos. Ha sido ampliamente utilizado para el estudio de la deglución y el diagnóstico de la disfagia. Debido a la proximidad de las estructuras faringoesofágicas y laríngeas, esta tecnología ha despertado el interés de los investigadores en voz. A pesar de los pocos estudios publicados hasta ahora, la manometría de alta resolución ha demostrado ser una herramienta extremadamente útil para obtener mediciones de presión de todo el segmento faringoesofágico durante la fonación. Además, permite la producción natural de la voz sin interferir en el área de la boca. Los datos de HRM ya han arrojado luz sobre la presión subglótica, la excursión laríngea vertical, la activación del músculo cricofaríngeo, el flujo de aire, la tensión muscular asociada con la vocalización y las variaciones de presión asociadas con diferentes estímulos fonatorios.

BRAZILIAN HERNIA AND ABDOMINAL WALL SOCIETY STATEMENT ON LARGE HIATAL HERNIAS MANAGEMENT / Posição da Sociedade Brasileira de Hérnia e Parede Abdominal sobre o tratamento de grandes hérnias de hiato

Large hiatal hernias (LHH) besides being more prevalent in the elderly, have different clinical presentation: fewer reflux, more mechanical symptoms and a greater possibility of acute, life-threatening complications such as gastric volvulus, ischemia and visceral mediastinal perforation. Thus, surgical indications are distinct from gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD-related), sliding hiatal hernias. Heartburn tends to be less intense, while symptoms of chest pain, cough, discomfort, and tiredness are reported more frequently. Complaints of vomiting and dysphagia may suggest the presence of associated gastric volvulus. Signs of iron deficiency and anemia are found. Surgical indication is still controversial and was previously based on high mortality reported in emergency surgeries for gastric volvulus. Postoperative mortality is especially related to three factors: body mass index (BMI above 35), age over 70 years and presence of comorbidity. Minimally invasive elective surgery should be offered to symptomatic individuals with good or reasonable performance status, regardless of age group. In asymptomatic and oligosymptomatic patients, besides obviously identifying the patient's desire, case-by-case analysis of surgical risk factors such as age, obesity and comorbidities, should be taken under consideration. One should also pay attention to situations with greater technical difficulty and risks of acute migration due to increased abdominal pressure (abdominoplasty, manual workers, spastic diseases). Technical alternatives such as partial fundoplication and anterior gastropexy can be considered. We emphasize the importance of performing surgical procedures in cases of LHH in high-volume centers, with experienced surgeons.

As grandes hérnias de hiato (HHG), além de serem mais prevalentes em idosos, têm apresentação clínica diferente: menos refluxo, mais sintomas mecânicos e maior possibilidade de complicações agudas e potencialmente fatais, como vólvulo gástrico, isquemia e perfuração mediastinal visceral. Assim, as indicações cirúrgicas são distintas das hérnias de hiato por deslizamento, relacionadas à doença do refluxo gastroesofágico (DRGE). A azia tende a ser menos intensa, enquanto os sintomas de dor no peito, tosse, desconforto e cansaço são relatados com maior frequência. Queixas de vômitos e disfagia podem sugerir a presença de volvo gástrico associado. São encontrados sinais de deficiência de ferro e anemia. A indicação cirúrgica ainda é controversa e foi anteriormente baseada na alta mortalidade relatada em cirurgias de emergência para volvo gástrico. A mortalidade pós-operatória está especialmente relacionada a três fatores: índice de massa corporal (IMC acima de 35), idade superior a 70 anos e presença de comorbidades. A cirurgia eletiva minimamente invasiva deve ser oferecida a indivíduos sintomáticos, com desempenho bom ou razoável, independentemente da faixa etária. Em pacientes assintomáticos e oligossintomáticos, além de obviamente identificar o desejo do paciente, deve-se levar em consideração a análise caso a caso dos fatores de risco cirúrgico, como idade, obesidade e comorbidades. Deve-se atentar também para situações de maior dificuldade técnica e riscos de migração aguda por aumento da pressão abdominal (abdominoplastia, trabalhos manuais, doenças espásticas). Alternativas técnicas como fundoplicatura parcial e gastropexia anterior podem ser consideradas. Ressaltamos a importância da realização de procedimentos cirúrgicos nos casos de GHH em centros de grande volume, com cirurgiões experientes.

Esophageal high-resolution manometry demands visual interpretation in addition to mathematical software-based analysis.

PURPOSE: Esophageal high-resolution manometry (HRM) revolutionized esophageal function testing due to the intuitive colorful and agreeable-to-the-eyes plots (Clouse plots). HRM execution and interpretation is guided by the Chicago Classification. The well-established metrics for interpretation allows a reliable automatic software analysis. Analysis based on these mathematical parameters, however, ignores the valuable visual interpretation unique to human eyes and based on expertise. METHODS: We compiled some situations where visual interpretation added useful information for HRM interpretation. RESULTS: Visual interpretation may be useful in cases of hypomotility, premature waves, artifacts, segmental abnormalities of peristalsis, and extra-luminal non-contractile findings. CONCLUSION: These extra findings can be reported apart from the conventional parameters.

Insights into the Paradox of the Weak Association Between Sleeve Gastrectomy and Barrett's Esophagus.

Sleeve gastrectomy (SG) is deemed a refluxogenic operation but with a low incidence of postoperative Barrett´s esophagus (BE). We aimed to shed some light on the potential paradox of the weak association between SG, BE and esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC). The high incidence of GERD after SG is not followed by an increased rate of BE and EAC, as these rates are similar to the general population. We hypothesized that this paradox may occur due to a difference in the gastro-esophageal reflux composition secondary to a lower content of bile, to a decrease in inflammation due to weight loss and hormonal changes, and to acquisition of healthier habits such as exercise, smoking cessation, and better eating behavior.