East Antarctic warming forced by ice loss during the Last Interglacial.

During the Last Interglacial (LIG; 129-116 thousand years before present), the Antarctic ice sheet (AIS) was 1 to 7 m sea level equivalent smaller than at pre-industrial. Here, we assess the climatic impact of partial AIS melting at the LIG by forcing a coupled climate model with a smaller AIS and the equivalent meltwater input around the Antarctic coast. We find that changes in surface elevation induce surface warming over East Antarctica of 2 to 4 °C, and sea surface temperature (SST) increases in the Weddell and Ross Seas by up to 2 °C. Meltwater forcing causes a high latitude SST decrease and a subsurface (100-500 m) ocean temperature increase by up to 2 °C in the Ross Sea. Our results suggest that the combination of a smaller AIS and enhanced meltwater input leads to a larger sub-surface warming than meltwater alone and induces further Antarctic warming than each perturbation separately.

Abyssal ocean overturning slowdown and warming driven by Antarctic meltwater.

The abyssal ocean circulation is a key component of the global meridional overturning circulation, cycling heat, carbon, oxygen and nutrients throughout the world ocean1,2. The strongest historical trend observed in the abyssal ocean is warming at high southern latitudes2-4, yet it is unclear what processes have driven this warming, and whether this warming is linked to a slowdown in the ocean's overturning circulation. Furthermore, attributing change to specific drivers is difficult owing to limited measurements, and because coupled climate models exhibit biases in the region5-7. In addition, future change remains uncertain, with the latest coordinated climate model projections not accounting for dynamic ice-sheet melt. Here we use a transient forced high-resolution coupled ocean-sea-ice model to show that under a high-emissions scenario, abyssal warming is set to accelerate over the next 30 years. We find that meltwater input around Antarctica drives a contraction of Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW), opening a pathway that allows warm Circumpolar Deep Water greater access to the continental shelf. The reduction in AABW formation results in warming and ageing of the abyssal ocean, consistent with recent measurements. In contrast, projected wind and thermal forcing has little impact on the properties, age and volume of AABW. These results highlight the critical importance of Antarctic meltwater in setting the abyssal ocean overturning, with implications for global ocean biogeochemistry and climate that could last for centuries.

Ventilation of the Southern Ocean Pycnocline.

Ocean ventilation is the transfer of tracers and young water from the surface down into the ocean interior. The tracers that can be transported to depth include anthropogenic heat and carbon, both of which are critical to understanding future climate trajectories. Ventilation occurs in both high- and midlatitude regions, but it is the southern midlatitudes that are responsible for the largest fraction of anthropogenic heat and carbon uptake; such Southern Ocean ventilation is the focus of this review. Southern Ocean ventilation occurs through a chain of interconnected mechanisms, including the zonally averaged meridional overturning circulation, localized subduction, eddy-driven mixing along isopycnals, and lateral transport by subtropical gyres. To unravel the complex pathways of ventilation and reconcile conflicting results, here we assess the relative contribution of each of thesemechanisms, emphasizing the three-dimensional and temporally varying nature of the ventilation of the Southern Ocean pycnocline. We conclude that Southern Ocean ventilation depends on multiple processes and that simplified frameworks that explain ventilation changes through a single process are insufficient.

Does the sensitivity of Southern Ocean circulation depend upon bathymetric details?

The response of the major ocean currents to changes in wind stress forcing is investigated with a series of idealized, but eddy-permitting, model simulations. Previously, ostensibly similar models have shown considerable variation in the oceanic response to changing wind stress forcing. Here, it is shown that a major reason for these differences in model sensitivity is subtle modification of the idealized bathymetry. The key bathymetric parameter is the extent to which the strong eddy field generated in the circumpolar current can interact with the bottom water formation process. The addition of an embayment, which insulates bottom water formation from meridional eddy fluxes, acts to stabilize the deep ocean density and enhances the sensitivity of the circumpolar current. The degree of interaction between Southern Ocean eddies and Antarctic shelf processes may thereby control the sensitivity of the Southern Ocean to change.