Evaluation of Kinesiophobia in Survivors of Major Burn Injury.

Kinesiophobia, the fear of movement and reinjury, has not been described in burn injury survivors. Physical activity is a key component of burn rehabilitation programs. Yet, not all burn survivors exercise at the recommended level. This is an exploratory study examining the association of the demographics and injury characteristics of burn survivors with a fear of movement. The subjective fear of movement was measured using the Tampa Scale for Kinesiophobia (TSK). The TSK score was compared between several demographics and injury characteristics by performing the independent sample t-test. Sixty-six percent of subjects in our study (n = 35), reported high levels of kinesiophobia (score 37 or above). The mean scores of the TSK were greater in males (40.7), non-white (43.0), Hispanic/Latino (41.1), age greater than 50 years (42.3), and TBSA burn of >15% compared to females (36.9), white (38.5), non-Hispanic/Latino (39.3), age 50 years or less (38.1), and TBSA 15% or less (39.4), respectively. However, with the exception of time postinjury, none of the mean differences were statistically significant. Subjects who had sustained a burn injury more than 12 months ago showed higher levels of kinesiophobia than the subjects who were injured within 12 months with a mean difference of 7.35 (P = .01). Thus, this study highlights the importance of 1) continued, long-term follow-up for burn survivors, and 2) appropriate educational and treatment interventions to address any underlying existing, new, or emerging medical issues that may contribute to the fear or avoidance of movement.

"Living Well" After Burn Injury: Using Case Reports to Illustrate Significant Contributions From the Burn Model System Research Program.

The Burn Model System (BMS) program of research has been funded since 1993 by the National Institute on Disability, Independent Living, and Rehabilitation Research (NIDILRR). The overarching aim of this program is to improve outcomes and quality of life for people with burns in the areas of health and function, employment, and community living and participation. This review reports on BMS contributions that have affected the lives of individuals with a significant burn injury using case reports to associate BMS contributions with recovery. In January 2020, current BMS grantee researchers assessed peer-reviewed BMS publications from 1994 to 2020. Using case report methodology, contributions were linked to three individuals treated at one of the four Burn Model System institutions. With over 25 years of NIDILRR funding, unique BMS contributions to patient recovery were identified and categorized into one of several domains: treatment, assessment measures, sequelae, peer support, employment, and long-term functional outcomes. A second review for significant results of BMS research that add to the understanding of burn injury, pathophysiology, and recovery research was identified and categorized as injury recovery research. The case study participants featured in this review identified select NIDILRR research contributions as having direct, personal benefit to their recovery. The knowledge generation and clinical innovation that this research program has contributed to our collective understanding of recovery after burn injury is considerable. Using case study methodology with three adult burn survivors, we highlight the impact and individual significance of program findings and reinforce the recognition that the value of any clinical research must have relevance to the lives of the study population.

Effectiveness of Paraffin and Sustained Stretch in Treatment of Shoulder Contractures Following a Burn Injury.

OBJECTIVE: To examine if range of motion of the shoulder treated with paraffin will be better than that of the shoulder treated with sustained stretch alone. DESIGN: Pilot randomized controlled trial. SETTING: Regional burn center. PARTICIPANTS: Patients (N=23) who sustained a burn injury, with a shoulder active abduction and/or flexion in the +70° to +150° degree range, who were 14 years or older, were receiving follow-up physical therapy after discharge from hospital, and provided a signed consent to participate. INTERVENTIONS: Group A received sustained stretch and paraffin, and group B received sustained stretch only. Both groups had 6 sessions of treatment over 2 weeks. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Active range of motion (AROM) and active-assisted range of motion (AAROM) for shoulder flexion (SF) and shoulder abduction (SA) were measured before and after each treatment session. RESULTS: For pretreatment measurements, only the results for SF AAROM had significant time effects. For posttreatment measurements, SF AROM and SF AAROM had significant effects for time. Session 1 was significantly lower than sessions 2, 3, 4, and 6 for both measures, and additionally, session 1 was significantly lower than session 5 for SF AAROM. For SA AROM, a group-by-time interaction effect was significant, with scores for the paraffin group relatively stable across sessions, and the nonparaffin group had peaks at sessions 3 and 6. There were no significant effects for (1) within-session changes to examine improvement during a session or (2) presession scores across the 6 sessions showing maintenance of motion. Total change from the first session presession measurement to the sixth session postsession measurement for the 2 treatment groups were nonsignificantly different. CONCLUSIONS: As shown in this study, sustained stretching with paraffin may be a valuable adjunct to range of motion intervention for the shoulder after burn injury.

Introduction to the NIDILRR Burn Model System (BMS) Program: Selected Findings II.

A special supplement to the Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation in 2007 reported selected findings of research from the first 13 years of the BMS Centers and Database Coordinating Center. This special supplement is the second such effort and reports on the growth of the BMS National Longitudinal Database (BMS NDB) since that time and select new research findings from the BMS centers.

A Comparison of Contracture Severity at Acute Discharge in Patients With and Without Heterotopic Ossification: A Burn Model System National Database Study.

This study assesses the association between heterotopic ossification and upper extremity contracture by comparing goniometric measured active range of motion outcomes of patients with and without heterotopic ossification. Data were obtained from the Burn Model System National Database between 1994 and 2003 for patients more than 18 years with elbow contracture at acute discharge. Absolute losses in elbow range of motion were compared for those with and without radiologic evidence of heterotopic ossification (location undefined) and were further examined by burn size subgroups using Wilcoxon rank-sum test. Differences in elbow range of motion were estimated using regression models, adjusted for demographic and clinical variables. Loss of range of motion of shoulder, wrist, forearm, and hand were also compared. From 407 instances of elbow contracture, the subjects with heterotopic ossification were found to have greater median absolute loss of elbow flexion among all survivors (median 50° [IQR 45°] vs 20° [30°], P < .0001), for the 20 to 40% total body surface area burn subgroup (70° [20°] vs 20° [30°], P = .0008) and for the >40% subgroup (50° [45°] vs 30° [32°], P = .03). The adjusted estimate of the mean difference in the absolute loss of elbow flexion between groups was 23.5° (SE ±7.2°, P = .0013). This study adds to our understanding of the potential effect of heterotopic ossification on upper extremity joint range of motion, demonstrating a significant association between the presence of heterotopic ossification and elbow flexion contracture severity. Further study is needed to determine the functional implications of heterotopic ossification and develop treatment protocols.

Quantifying Contracture Severity at Hospital Discharge in Adults: A Burn Model System National Database Study.

Contracture is a common complication of burn injury and can cause significant barriers to functional recovery and rehabilitation. There are limited studies of quantitative range of motion after burn injury. The purpose of this study is to examine quantitative contracture outcomes by anatomical location, burn size, and length of stay in adults. Data were obtained from the Burn Model System National Database from 1994 to 2003. All adult patients with a joint contracture at acute discharge were included and 16 joint motions were examined. Contractures were reported as both mean absolute loss of normal range of motion in degrees and percent loss of normal range of motion. Analysis of variance was used to assess for a linear trend for contracture severity by burn size and length of stay. Data from 659 patients yielded 6,228 instances of contracture. Mean absolute loss of normal range of motion ranged from 20° to 65° representing an 18 to 45% loss of normal movement across the studied joint motions. In the majority of joint motions, contracture severity significantly increased with larger burn size and longer length of stay; however, wrist and many lower extremity joint movements did not demonstrate this trend. The data illustrate the quantitative assessment of range of motion deficits in adults with burn injury at discharge and the relation to burn size and length of stay.

The National Institute on Disability, Independent Living, and Rehabilitation Research Burn Model System: Twenty Years of Contributions to Clinical Service and Research.

The National Institute on Disability, Independent Living, and Rehabilitation Research (NIDILRR) established the Burn Model System (BMS) in 1993 to improve the lives of burn survivors. The BMS program includes 1) a multicenter longitudinal database describing the functional and psychosocial recovery of burn survivors; 2) site-specific burn-related research; and 3) a knowledge dissemination component directed toward patients and providers. Output from each BMS component was analyzed. Database structure, content, and access procedures are described. Publications using the database were identified and categorized to illustrate the content area of the work. Unused areas of the database were identified for future study. Publications related to site-specific projects were cataloged. The most frequently cited articles are summarized to illustrate the scope of these projects. The effectiveness of dissemination activities was measured by quantifying website hits and information downloads. There were 25 NIDILRR-supported publications that utilized the database. These articles covered topics related to psychological outcomes, functional outcomes, community reintegration, and burn demographics. There were 172 site-specific publications; highly cited articles demonstrate a wide scope of study. For information dissemination, visits to the BMS website quadrupled between 2013 and 2014, with 124,063 downloads of educational material in 2014. The NIDILRR BMS program has played a major role in defining the course of burn recovery, and making that information accessible to the general public. The accumulating information in the database serves as a rich resource to the burn community for future study. The BMS is a model for collaborative research that is multidisciplinary and outcome focused.

Psychometric Properties of the Modified 5-D Itch Scale in a Burn Model System Sample of People With Burn Injury.

The aim of this study is to evaluate the psychometric properties of the 4-dimension (4-D) itch scale, a modified version of the 5-dimension itch scale, in a sample of individuals with severe burn injury and/or burn injuries to hands, face, and/or feet. Four of the five domains of the 5-dimension itch scale (4-D) were administered to individuals who reported itching (N = 173) in the Burn Injury Model System Centers Program longitudinal study at either 5 or 10 years after injury. Analyses of the scale included evaluation of dimensionality, internal consistency, associations with other symptoms or quality of life measures, and an examination of floor and ceiling effects. Fit values from a one-factor confirmatory factor analysis were acceptable, supporting unidimensionality. Cronbach's α was 0.82, indicating good internal consistency. One item had a corrected item-total score correlation of less than 0.40. Associations between the 4-D and other measures were in the expected direction and magnitude. A negligible number of participants (no more than two) selected the lowest category for all items (ie, minimal floor effect) or the highest category for all items (ie, minimal ceiling effect). 4-D had acceptable psychometric properties in a sample of adult burn injury survivors; however, the scale could be improved by removing the item with a low correlation with the total score.

Burn Rehabilitation Therapists Competency Tool-Version 2: An Expansion to Include Long-Term Rehabilitation and Outpatient Care.

The Burn Rehabilitation Therapist Competency Tool (BRTCT) was developed in 2011 to define core knowledge and skill sets that are central to the job performance of occupational and physical therapists working with burn patients during acute hospitalization and initial rehabilitation. It was the first national effort to provide standards that burn centers could use for the training and evaluation of a BRT performance. The American Burn Association Rehabilitation Committee recently expanded the tool to include long-term rehabilitation and outpatient care in order to more fully represent all of the stages of care in which patients with burn injury receive therapy. Thirty-six burn centers contributed competencies, 17 rehabilitation experts participated in a systematic Delphi questionnaire process, and eight representatives from seven additional burn centers validated the tool. The revised BRTCT, called the BRTCT-2, includes four new practice domains and 28 new competency statements. The expanded tool provides a common framework of standards for performance for occupational and physical therapists working with patients throughout the full spectrum of burn care.

Long-Term Outcomes in Patients Surviving Large Burns: The Musculoskeletal System.

The authors have previously described long-term outcomes related to the skin in patients surviving large burns. The objective of this study was to describe the long-term musculoskeletal complications following major burn injury. This is a cross-sectional descriptive study that includes a one-time evaluation of 98 burn survivors (mean age = 47 years; mean TBSA = 57%; and mean time from injury = 17 years), who consented to participate in the study. A comprehensive history and physical examination was conducted by a senior and experienced Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation physician. In addition to completing a Medical Problem Checklist, subjects also completed the Burn-Specific Health Scale (Abbreviated 80 item), a self-report measure used to review the level of functional adaptation. Joint pain, joint stiffness, problems walking or running, fatigue, and weak arms and hands are conditions that continue to be reported at an average of 17 years from the time of burn injury. Seventy-three percent (68 of 93) of the study sample were found to have a limitation of motion and areas most affected were the neck (47%), hands (45%), and axilla (38%). The global (Burn-Specific Health Scale-total) score for the overall sample was 0.78. Subjects with limitation of motion had significant difficulty in areas of mobility, self-care, hand function, and role activities. This study underscores the importance of long-term follow-up care and therapeutic interventions for survivors of major burn injury, as they continue to have significant and persistent burn-related impairments even several years following injury.

Pruritus in adult burn survivors: postburn prevalence and risk factors associated with increased intensity.

Pruritus (itching) is a common and distressing complaint after injury. The purpose of this study was to investigate self-reported postburn pruritus in a large, multisite cohort study of adult burn survivors. Descriptive statistics, general linear regression, and mixed model repeated measures analyses were employed to test statistical significance. Two cohorts of adult burn survivors were studied. Group 1 participants (n = 637) were injured from 2006 to 2010 and were followed up prospectively for 2 years from the time of injury. Prevalence and severity of pruritus were compared across multiple subgroups. Prevalence of pruritus at discharge, 6, 12, and 24 months following injury were 93, 86, 83, and 73%, respectively. Regression results established that %TBSA-burn and %TBSA-grafted were correlated to itch intensity values. Group 2 participants (n = 336) were injured 4 to 10 years before an assessment using the validated 5-D Itch Scale. Many patients (44.4%) reported itching in the area of the burn, graft, or donor site. Within this group, 76% reported itching for <6 hours/day, and 52 and 29% considered itch intensity to be mild or moderate, respectively. This study confirms that the prevalence of burn pruritus is high, initially affecting >90% and persisting for >40% of long-term burn survivors. New predictors for postburn itch were identified to include younger age, dry skin, and raised/thick scars. Characterization of the impact of postburn pruritus on leisure, vocation, and sleep are quantified for those long-term survivors suffering from postburn pruritus.

Select practices in management and rehabilitation of burns: a survey report.

The purpose of this study is to document the organization and current practices in physical rehabilitation across burn centers. An online survey developed for the specific purposes of this study sought information regarding a) logistics of the burn center; b) inpatient and outpatient treatment of patients with burn injury; and c) specific protocols in the treatment of a few complications secondary to burn injuries. Of the 159 responses received, 115 were received from the United States, 20 from Australia, 16 from Canada, and 7 from New Zealand. The overall sample included responses from 76 physical therapists (PTs) and 78 occupational therapists. Seventy-three of those surveyed considered themselves primarily a burn therapist. Nurses (86%) were reported as primarily responsible for wound care of inpatients, followed by wound care technicians (24%). Ninety-seven percent of the therapists reported following their own treatment plans. The trunk and areas of head and neck were treated by both PTs and occupational therapists, whereas the lower extremities continue to be treated predominantly by PTs. Some common practices regarding treatment of a few complications secondary to burn injuries such as splinting to prevent contractures, treatment of exposed or ruptured extensor tendons, exposed Achilles tendons, heterotopic ossification, postoperative ambulation, conditioning, scar massage, and use of compression garments are described. Opportunities exist for 1) developing a common document for practice guidelines in physical rehabilitation of burns; and 2) conducting collaborative studies to evaluate treatment interventions and outcomes.

Functional and psychosocial outcomes of older adults after burn injury: results from a multicenter database of severe burn injury.

A number of factors increase the susceptibility of older adults to burn injury. The majority of studies of older adults have focused on patient and injury factors related to mortality risk. However, little is known about the long-term functional and psychological outcomes of older adults after severe burn. The purpose of this study is to examine the long-term outcomes of older adults after burn injury. The authors performed an analysis of the outcomes of older adults (age 55 years or older) enrolled in a prospective study of burn injury outcomes. Change in living situation as well as distress, functional impairment, and quality of life were examined at discharge and at 6, 12, and 24 months after hospital discharge. Mixed effects modeling was performed to compare differences across age groups and time as well as to account for missing data. A total of 737 patients aged 55 years or older were enrolled and followed in the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research burn program. Patients in all age groups had significant deficits in Short Form-36, Functional Independence Measure, and Brief Symptom Inventory scores at time of discharge. Recovery of physical and psychosocial functioning was greatest from discharge to 6 months in patients aged 55 to 74 years and greatest at 1 year for patients aged 75 years or older. This study confirms that severe burn injury significantly impacts both functional outcome and psychosocial quality of life in older adults. However, the impact seems to be age related as are recovery trajectories. Rehabilitation programs lasting up to 1 year after injury could be of tremendous benefit in helping older adults achieve maximal potential recovery.

Long-term outcomes in patients surviving large burns: the skin.

The objective of this study was to evaluate persons who have survived severe burns and to describe the long-term residual problems relating to the skin. This is a cross-sectional descriptive study that included a one-time evaluation of 98 burn survivors (18 years old or older) who survived >or=30% TBSA burns, were >or=3 years postinjury, and consented to participate. Study participants were required to undergo a physical examination conducted by the Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation physicians in addition to completing study questionnaires. Participants were predominantly male (63%) and Caucasian (69%). The average time from injury was 17 years (range 3-53 years), and the average TBSA burn was 57% (range 30-97%). Problems with hot and cold temperature, sensory loss, raised scars, and itching continued to pose problems many years after burn injury. Reports of open wounds, skin rash, painful scars, and shooting pain in scars tended to decrease over time, whereas reports of fragile burns, including cuts and tears, tended to increase over time. Findings from the physical examination of the participants include hypertrophic scars in grafted areas (92%) and in nongrafted areas (38%), decreased sensation to pin in grafted areas (71%), hyperpigmentation in grafted areas (53%), fingernail deformities (35%), and skin breakdown (32%). Individuals with large burns deserve more long-term attention. As survivors of large burns continue to face significant burn-related issues, there is a critical need for long-term follow-up both in the clinic and in research.

Assessment of recovery from burn-related neuropathy by electrodiagnostic testing.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the recovery of burn-related neuropathies by electrodiagnostic testing. Burn patients who presented to an American Burn Association verified burn center were interviewed and examined for clinical evidence of peripheral neuropathies by a physiatrist. Patients whom consented to participate were tested for electrodiagnostic evidence of peripheral neuropathy. Repeated studies were performed to assess for evidence of recovery. A total of 370 patients were screened. Thirty-six (9.73%) patients had clinical evidence of neuropathy. Eighteen male patients with a mean TBSA burn of 42% had nerve conduction studies performed. Etiologies of the injuries included eight flame, eight electrical, and three others. Seventy-three nerve conduction studies were performed and 58 of the tests were abnormal. The most commonly affected nerve was the median sensory (10). For patients with repeated tests, the mean time between tests was 169 days (SD, 140 days). There was a significant difference between the initial and follow-up test (McNemar's change test P=.009). In subset analysis of motor and sensory abnormalities, there was no significant difference (P=.07). The most common neuropathy identified in this cohort was the median sensory. Overall, there was improvement in the nerve conduction abnormalities examined. This study suggests that the prognosis for recovery after burn-related neuropathy is good.

Outcomes after deep full-thickness hand burns.

OBJECTIVE: To measure hand-specific functional performance after deep full-thickness dorsal hand burns. DESIGN: Descriptive, cross-sectional study. SETTING: The 2005 Phoenix Society's World Burn Congress, Baltimore, MD. PARTICIPANTS: Volunteer sample of burn survivors (N=32) with full-thickness dorsal hand burns with extensor mechanism involvement, who consented to participate. INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Total active motion of joints, Jebsen-Taylor Hand Function Test (JTHFT), and Michigan Hand Questionnaire (MHQ). RESULTS: Subjects had large burns (mean percentage total body surface area, 58%). Digit involvement was severe, with more than 50% having amputations and 22% with a boutonnière deformity. Forty percent of subjects had poor functional range with total active motion of less than 180 degrees . Scores on the JTHFT were lower than normative scores, and subjects reported most difficulty in performing MHQ activities of daily living (ADLs). CONCLUSIONS: Even with partial amputation or loss of extensor mechanisms, the intact flexor muscles facilitate function by allowing for a modified grasp and enable patients to be independent in most ADL tasks. Training programs can be developed to meet specific goals despite residual hand deformities caused by deep full-thickness burns.

Acute pain at discharge from hospitalization is a prospective predictor of long-term suicidal ideation after burn injury.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the extent to which pain contributes to risk for suicidal ideation after burn injury. DESIGN: This longitudinal cohort study evaluated participants at discharge, 6 months, and 1 year after burn injury. SETTING: Inpatient rehabilitation units of multiple regional burn centers. PARTICIPANTS: Survivors of major burns (N=128). INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Pain severity, assessed using the Medical Outcomes Study 36-Item Short-Form Health Survey bodily pain subscale, and passive and active suicidal ideation, assessed by self-report. RESULTS: At each time point, approximately one quarter to one third of the sample reported some form of suicidal ideation. In logistic regression analyses, pain severity at discharge was the sole consistent predictor of suicidal ideation at follow-up, with greater pain severity being associated with enhanced risk for both passive and active suicidal ideation. These associations were observed even after controlling for discharge mental health. CONCLUSIONS: These are the first findings to suggest an association between acute pain severity and the development and maintenance of suicidal ideation in burn patients. Further research in this area, including the study of improved pain management programs as a prophylaxis against suicidal ideation, may benefit those who are at elevated suicide risk as a consequence of burn injuries.

Barriers to return to work after burn injuries.

OBJECTIVE: To identify barriers to return to work after burn injury as identified by the patient. DESIGN: A cohort study with telephone interview up to 1 year. SETTING: Hospital-based burn centers at 3 national sites. PARTICIPANTS: Hospitalized patients (N=154) meeting the American Burn Association criteria for major burn injury, employed at least 20 hours a week at the time of injury, and with access to a telephone after discharge. INTERVENTION: Patients were contacted via telephone every 2 weeks up to 4 months, then monthly up to 1 year after discharge. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: A return to work survey was used to identify barriers that prevented patients from returning to work. A graphic rating scale determined the impact of each barrier. RESULTS: By 1 year, 79.7% of patients returned to work. Physical and wound issues were barriers early after discharge. Although physical abilities continued to be a significant barrier up to 1 year, working conditions (temperature, humidity, safety) and psychosocial factors (nightmares, flashbacks, appearance concerns) became important issues in those with long-term disability. CONCLUSIONS: The majority of patients return to work after a burn injury. Although physical and work conditions are important barriers, psychosocial issues need to be evaluated and treated to optimize return to work.

Assets and liabilities of the Burn Model System data model: a comparison with the National Burn Registry.

OBJECTIVES: To determine whether the Burn Model System (BMS) population is representative of the larger burn population and to investigate threats to internal and external validity in a multicenter longitudinal database of severe burns. DESIGN: Cohort data for the BMS project have been collected since 1994. Follow-up data have been collected at 6, 12, and 24 months postburn. The demographic and burn characteristics of the BMS population were compared with those of patients in the National Burn Registry (NBR). SETTING: The BMS, which collected data for these analyses from 5 regional burn centers in the United States, and the NBR dataset, which is a registry of information collected through the Trauma Registry of the American College of Surgeons and includes data from 70 hospitals in the United States and Canada. PARTICIPANTS: BMS study participants were severely burned patients treated at 1 of the 5 participating burn centers. We compared the BMS population with that of the NBR both in total and filtered to include only patients with comparable injuries. INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Comparable demographic and burn characteristics contained in both the NBR and the 5-center BMS longitudinal database and baseline and follow-up distributions of demographic variables and burn characteristics in the BMS database. RESULTS: Although minor deviations in demographic distributions were found between the BMS and NBR and between discharge and follow-up populations, our results show that the BMS population sample is internally and externally valid and is adequate for answering research questions. CONCLUSIONS: Cohort studies examining long-term outcomes have the potential flaw of using a nonrepresentative study population. The BMS population was found to be sufficiently representative, but future analyses will require cautious and purposeful application of statistical adjustment strategies.