Nanogalvanic Cells Release Highly Reactive Electrons in Tumors to Effectively Eliminate Tumors.

External stimuli triggering chemical reactions in cancer cells to generate highly reactive chemical species are very appealing for cancer therapy, in which external irradiation activating sensitizers to transfer energy or electrons to surrounding oxygen or other molecules is critical for generating cytotoxic reactive species. However, poor light penetration into tissue, low activity of sensitizers, and reliance on oxygen supply restrict the generation of cytotoxic chemical species in hypoxic tumors, which lowers the therapeutic efficacy. Here, this work presents galvanic cell nanomaterials that can directly release highly reactive electrons in tumors without external irradiation or photosensitizers. The released reactive electrons directly react with surrounding biomolecules such as proteins and DNA within tumors to destroy them or react with other surrounding (bio)molecules to yield cytotoxic chemical species to eliminate tumors independent of oxygen. Administering these nanogalvanic cells to mice results in almost complete remission of subcutaneous solid tumors and deep metastatic tumors. The results demonstrate that this strategy can further arouse an immune response even in a hypoxic environment. This method offers a promising approach to effectively eliminate tumors, similar to photodynamic therapy, but does not require oxygen or irradiation to activate photosensitizers.

DPA-Zinc around Polyplexes Acts Like PEG to Reduce Protein Binding While Targeting Cancer Cells.

Gene therapy holds great promise as an effective treatment for many diseases of genetic origin. Gene therapy works by employing cationic polymers, liposomes, and nanoparticles to condense DNA into polyplexes via electronic interactions. Then, a therapeutic gene is introduced into target cells, thereby restoring or changing cellular function. However, gene transfection efficiency remains low in vivo due to high protein binding, poor targeting ability, and substantial endosomal entrapment. Artificial sheaths containing PEG, anions, or zwitterions can be introduced onto the surface of gene carriers to prevent interaction with proteins; however, they reduce the cellular uptake efficacy, endosomal escape, targeting ability, thereby, lowering gene transfection. Here, it is reported that linking dipicolylamine-zinc (DPA-Zn) ions onto polyplex nanoparticles can produce a strong hydration water layer around the polyplex, mimicking the function of PEGylation to reduce protein binding while targeting cancer cells, augmenting cellular uptake and endosomal escape. The polyplexes with a strong hydration water layer on the surface can achieve a high gene transfection even in a 50% serum environment. This strategy provides a new solution for preventing protein adsorption while improving cellular uptake and endosomal escape.

Easy Access to Diverse Multiblock Copolymers with On-Demand Blocks via Thioester-Relayed In-Chain Cascade Copolymerization.

Multiblock copolymers are envisioned as promising materials with enhanced properties and functionality compared with their diblock/triblock counterparts. However, the current approaches can construct multiblock copolymers with a limited number of blocks but tedious procedures. Here, we report a thioester-relayed in-chain cascade copolymerization strategy for the easy preparation of multiblock copolymers with on-demand blocks, in which thioester groups with on-demand numbers are built in the polymer backbone by controlled/living polymerizations. These thioester groups further serve as the in-chain initiating centers to trigger the acyl group transfer ring-opening polymerization of episulfides independently and concurrently to extend the polymer backbone into multiblock structures. The compositions, number of blocks, and block degree of polymerization can be easily regulated. This strategy can offer easy access to a library of multiblock copolymers with ≈100 blocks in only 2 to 4 steps.

Greatly Enhanced Accessibility and Reproducibility of Worm-like Micelles by In Situ Crosslinking Polymerization-Induced Self-Assembly.

Worm-like micelles have attracted great interest due to their anisotropic structures. However, the experimental conditions for obtaining worm-like micelles are very restricted, which usually causes seriously poor reproducibility. In this work, significantly enhanced accessibility of worm-like micelles is realized by in situ crosslinking polymerization-induced self-assembly (PISA). The reproducibility of worm-like micelles is greatly improved due to the significantly enlarged experimental windows of worm-like micelles in the morphology diagram. Moreover, the reliability of the methodology to enhance the accessibility of worm-like micelles has been demonstrated in various in situ crosslinking PISA systems. The greatly enhanced accessibility and reproducibility of worm-like micelles is undoubtedly cost-effective especially in scale-up production, which paves the way for further application of worm-like micelles with various compositions and functionalities.

Tumor Microenvironment Triggered the In Situ Synthesis of an Excellent Sonosensitizer in Tumor for Sonodynamic Therapy.

An ultrasound-triggered sonodynamic therapy has shown great promise for cancer therapy. However, its clinical applications are very limited because the traditional sonosensitizers tend to suffer from very poor efficiency combined with low retention in cancer cells and low tumor selectivity. Therefore, sonosensitizers with higher effectivity, higher tumor cell retention, and higher tumor cell specificity are highly required. Herein, we constructed a Ti2C(OH)X nanosheet, which was a poor sonosensitizer but had a long circulation in the blood system. However, it was very interesting to find that the tumor microenvironment could in situ turn Ti2C(OH)X nanosheet into a novel and excellent sonosensitizer with a nanofiber structure in tumors, exhibiting excellent ability to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) under ultrasound. Moreover, the nanofiber structure made it very difficult to get out of cancer cells, highly enhancing the retention of the sonosensitizer in the tumor, thereby enabling it to effectively and selectively kill cancer cells in vivo. Our findings demonstrate that the strategy of the tumor microenvironment triggering the in situ synthesis of an effective sonosensitizer in tumor provided a promising means to simultaneously increase the efficiency, sonosensitizer retention in cancer cells, and cancer selectivity, thereby effectively killing cancer cells but causing little damage to healthy tissues via the sonodynamic therapy.

Synthesis of Poly(thioester sulfonamide)s via the Ring-Opening Copolymerization of Cyclic Thioanhydride with N-Sulfonyl Aziridine Using Mild Phosphazene Base.

Providing access to diverse polymer structures is highly desirable, which helps to explore new polymer materials. Poly(thioester sulfonamide)s, combining both the advantages of thioesters and amides, however, are rarely available in polymer chemistry. Here, the ring-opening copolymerization (ROCOP) of cyclic thioanhydride with N-sulfonyl aziridine using mild phosphazene base, resulting in well-defined poly(thioester sulfonamide)s with highly alternative structures, high yields, and controlled molecular weights, is reported. Additionally, benefiting from the mild catalytic process, this ROCOP can be combined with ROCOP of N-sulfonyl aziridines with cyclic anhydrides to produce novel block copolymers.

Photopolymerization performed under dark conditions using long-stored electrons in carbon nitride.

In nature, the chemical energy and electrons stored in ATP and NADPH generated during irradiation can facilitate biochemical reactions under dark conditions. However, in artificial photoreaction systems, it is still very difficult to perform photoreactions under dark conditions due to the fact that the photogenerated charge pairs can recombine immediately upon ceasing the irradiation. Preventing the recombination of photogenerated charge pairs still constitutes a major challenge at present. Here, it is reported that functionalized carbon nitride nanomaterials having many heptazine rings with a positive charge distribution, which can tightly trap photogenerated electrons, efficiently prevent the recombination of photogenerated charges. These stored charges are exceedingly long-lived (up to months) and can drive photopolymerization without light irradiation, even after one month. The system introduced here demonstrates a new approach for storing light energy as long-lived radicals, enabling photoreactions under dark conditions.

Single nanosheet can sustainably generate oxygen and inhibit respiration simultaneously in cancer cells.

In a tumor, the abnormal cancer cell proliferation results in an insufficient O2 supply, and meanwhile cancer cells consume O2 very fast. The imbalance between a low oxygen supply and overwhelming oxygen consumption results in a low oxygen concentration in solid tumors. Therefore, in order to relieve hypoxia in tumors, it is necessary to not only sustainably generate O2, but also inhibit mitochondrial respiration simultaneously. Here, we found that a single Ti2C(OH)2 nanomaterial not only can sustainably generate O2 but also simultaneously highly inhibits mitochondrial respiration via binding phosphorylation proteins onto the surface in cancer cells. Ce6 was linked onto Ti2C(OH)2, forming Ti2C(OH)2-Ce6. Ti2C(OH)2-Ce6 could highly relieve hypoxia in tumors via the combination of sustainable O2 generation and respiration inhibition, produce enough 1O2 to kill cancer cells via PDT, and also effectively convert the absorbed light energy into thermal energy to kill cancer cell via PTT, thereby highly enhancing the cancer therapy.

Correction: Single nanosheet can sustainably generate oxygen and inhibit respiration simultaneously in cancer cells.

Correction for 'Single nanosheet can sustainably generate oxygen and inhibit respiration simultaneously in cancer cells' by Wei-Qiang Huang et al., Mater. Horiz., 2021, DOI: .

Phototunable Cloud Point Temperatures Stemming from Cyclic Topology: Synthesis and Thermal Phase Transition Behavior of Cyclic Poly(N-acryloylsarcosine methyl ester).

Cyclic polymers possess distinct properties compared with their linear counterparts, such as smaller hydrodynamic volume, lower viscosity, and higher glass-transition temperature, etc. To explore the impact of the cyclic topology on the thermo-induced phase transition behavior of poly(N-acryloylsarcosine methyl ester) (PNASME), the anthracene-terminated telechelic PNASMEs are synthesized by reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization of monomer NASME using a bifunctional chain transfer agent (CTA) with two anthryl groups. Subsequently, cyclic PNASMEs are prepared via UV-induced cyclization under 365 nm UV. There are considerable increases (up to 50 °C) for the cloud point temperatures (Tcp s) of cyclic PNASMEs compared with the linear counterparts. In view of the increment, the Tcp of PNASME is tuned by varying the cyclic/linear ratio (the molar ratio between cyclic PNASME and linear PNASME in the product) with different irradiation time.

Facile Multicomponent Polymerization and Postpolymerization Modification via an Effective Meldrum's Acid-Based Three-Component Reaction.

Providing access to highly diverse polymer structures by multicomponent reactions is highly desirable; efficient Meldrum's acid-based multicomponent reactions, however, have been rarely highlighted in polymer chemistry. Here, the three-component reaction of Meldrum's acid, indole, and aldehyde is introduced into polymer synthesis. Direct multicomponent polymerization of Meldrum's acid, dialdehyde, and diindole can perform under mild conditions, resulting in complex Meldrum's acid-containing polymers with well-defined structures, and high molecular weights. Additionally, nearly quantitative postpolymerization modification can also perform via this Meldrum's acid-based multicomponent reaction. These results indicate that Meldrum's acid-based multicomponent reaction will be a potential tool to prepare novel polymers.

Polymerization-Induced Self-Assembly to Produce Prodrug Nanoparticles with Reduction-Responsive Camptothecin Release and pH-Responsive Charge-Reversible Property.

Polymerization-induced self-assembly has been demonstrated to be a powerful strategy for fabricating polymeric nanoparticles in the last two decades. However, the stringent requirements for the monomers greatly limit the chemical versatility of PISA-based functional nanoparticles and expanding the monomer family of PISA is still highly desirable. Herein, a camptothecin analogue (CPTM) is first used as the monomer in PISA. Prodrug nanoparticles with reduction-responsive camptothecin release behavior are fabricated at 10% solid concentration (100 mg g-1 ). Poly(N-(2-hydroxypropyl)methacrylamide) (PHPMA) and poly(2-(diethylamino)ethyl methacrylate) (PDEAEMA) are used as the macro RAFT agents to comediate the RAFT dispersion polymerization of CPTM in ethanol to produce the PHPMA/PDEAEMA-stabilized nanoparticles. The PDEAEMA chains become hydrophobic and are in the collapsed state at physiological pH values. In contrast, in the vicinity of an acidic tumor, the tertiary amine groups of PDEAEMA chains are rapidly protonated, leading to fast hydrophobic-hydrophilic transitions and charge reversal. Such fast charge-reversal results in enhanced cancer cell internalization of the prodrug nanoparticles, thus achieving superior anticancer efficacy.

Rhodanine-based Knoevenagel reaction and ring-opening polymerization for efficiently constructing multicyclic polymers.

Cyclic polymers have a number of unique physical properties compared with those of their linear counterparts. However, the methods for the synthesis of cyclic polymers are very limited, and some multicyclic polymers are still not accessible now. Here, we found that the five-membered cyclic structure and electron withdrawing groups make methylene in rhodanine highly active to aldehyde via highly efficient Knoevenagel reaction. Also, rhodanine can act as an initiator for anionic ring-opening polymerization of thiirane to produce cyclic polythioethers. Therefore, rhodanine can serve as both an initiator for ring-opening polymerization and a monomer in Knoevenagel polymerization. Via rhodanine-based Knoevenagel reaction, we can easily incorporate rhodanine moieties in the backbone, side chain, branched chain, etc, and correspondingly could produce cyclic structures in the backbone, side chain, branched chain, etc, via rhodanine-based anionic ring-opening polymerization. This rhodanine chemistry would provide easy access to a wide variety of complex multicyclic polymers.

Polymer Nanofibers Exhibiting Remarkable Activity in Driving the Living Polymerization under Visible Light and Reusability.

Visible light-driving syntheses have emerged as a powerful tool for organic synthesis and for the preparation of macromolecules under mild and environmentally benign conditions. However, precious but nonreusable photosensitizers or photocatalysts are often required to activate the reaction, limiting its practicality. Here, it is reported that poly(1,4-diphenylbutadiyne) (PDPB) nanofibers exhibit remarkable activity in driving the living free radical polymerization under visible light. Moreover, PDPB nanofibers are very stable under irradiation of visible light and can be reused without appreciable loss of activity even after repeated cycling. The nanofiber will be a promising photocatalyst with excellent reusability and stability for the reactions driven by visible light.

Degradable PE-Based Copolymer with Controlled Ester Structure Incorporation by Cobalt-Mediated Radical Copolymerization under Mild Condition.

Polyethylene (PE) is one of the most widely used materials in the world, but it is virtually undegradable and quickly accumulates in nature, which may contaminate the environment. We utilized the cobalt-mediated radical copolymerization (CMRP) of ethylene and cyclic ketene acetals (CKAs) to effectively incorporate ester groups into PE backbone as cleavable structures to make PE-based copolymer degradable under mild conditions. The content of ethylene and ester units in the produced copolymer could be finely regulated by CKA concentration or ethylene pressure. Also, the copolymerization of ethylene and CKA with other functional vinyl monomers can produce functional and degradable PE-based copolymer. All the formed PE-based copolymers could degrade in the presence of trimethylamine (Et3N).

Stable Black Phosphorus Nanosheets Exhibiting High Tumor-Accumulating and Mitochondria-Targeting for Efficient Photothermal Therapy via Double Functionalization.

Black phosphorus (BP) has exhibited excellent biocompatibility and high photothermal conversion efficiency under near-infrared light, which makes it very promising for photothermal therapy. However, practical applications are highly hampered because it lacks a targeting property and rapidly degrades in cancer cells, especially in response to strong intracellular oxidative stress. Here, we reported that the mitochondrial targeting peptide functionalized black phosphorus nanosheets covered with an acid-labile polymer shell (doubly functionalized black phosphorus (DFBP) nanosheets) exhibited good stability. DFBP nanosheets not only have excellent ability of accumulating in tumor tissue via surface charge switching but also can target mitochondria. The doubly functionalized black phosphorus nanosheets resulted in robust cancer cell uptake but very poor normal cell accumulation. In vivo, the BP nanosheets could highly accumulate in a tumor and specifically target mitochondria, generating enough hyperthermia under near-infrared light, leading to cell death. This work provides a powerful way to ablate a tumor selectively with negligible side effects.

Photothermal Therapy Nanomaterials Boosting Transformation of Fe(III) into Fe(II) in Tumor Cells for Highly Improving Chemodynamic Therapy.

Chemodynamic therapy based on Fe2+-catalyzed Fenton reaction holds great promise in cancer treatment. However, low-produced hydroxyl radicals in tumor cells constitute its severe challenges because of the fact that Fe2+ with high catalytic activity could be easily oxidized into Fe3+ with low catalytic activity, greatly lowering Fenton reaction efficacy. Here, we codeliver CuS with the iron-containing prodrug into tumor cells. In tumor cells, the overproduced esterase could cleave the phenolic ester bond in the prodrug to release Fe2+, activating Fenton reaction to produce the hydroxyl radical. Meanwhile, CuS could act as a nanocatalyst for continuously catalyzing the regeneration of high-active Fe2+ from low-active Fe3+ to produce enough hydroxyl radicals to efficiently kill tumor cells as well as a photothermal therapy agent for generating hyperthermia for thermal ablation of tumor cells upon NIR irradiation. The results have exhibited that the approach of photothermal therapy nanomaterials boosting transformation of Fe3+ into Fe2+ in tumor cells can highly improve Fenton reaction for efficient chemodynamic therapy. This strategy was demonstrated to have an excellent antitumor activity both in vitro and in vivo, which provides an innovative perspective to Fenton reaction-based chemodynamic therapy.

Hyperbranched Multicyclic Polymer Built from Tailored Multifunctional Monocyclic Prepolymer.

A simple and efficient method to construct a hyperbranched multicyclic polymer is introduced. First, a tailored trithiocarbonate with two terminal anthracene units and three azide groups is successfully synthesized, and this multifunctional trithiocarbonate is used as chain transfer agent (CTA) to afford anthracene-telechelic polystyrene (PS) via reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization. After that, linear PS is irradiated under 365 nm UV light to achieve the cyclization process. The monocyclic polymer further reacts with sym-dibenzo-1,5-cyclooctadiene-3,7-diyne via "A2 +B3 " strategy based on a self-accelerating click reaction to produce hyperbranched multicyclic polymer. The structures and properties of the polymers are characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), gel permeation chromatography (GPC), UV-vis spectrophotometry, and triple-detection size-exclusion chromatography (TD-SEC). The number of monocyclic units of the resultant hyperbranched multicyclic polymer reaches about 21 based on multi-angle laser light scattering (MALLS) measurements. The plot of intrinsic viscosity versus molecular weight reveals that the α value of the unique hyperbranched multicyclic polymer is lower than both hyperbranched polymers and cyclic polymers.

Polymerization-Induced Self-Assembly of Functionalized Block Copolymer Nanoparticles and Their Application in Drug Delivery.

Drug delivery systems (DDS) based on functionalized polymeric nanoparticles have attracted considerable attention. Although great advances have been reported in the past decades, the fabrication efficiency and reproducibility of polymeric nanoparticles are barely satisfactory due to the intrinsic limitations of the traditional self-assembly method, which severely prevent further applications of the intelligent DDS. In the last decade, a new self-assembly method, which is usually called polymerization-induced self-assembly (PISA), has become a powerful strategy for the fabrication of the polymeric nanoparticles with bespoke morphology. The PISA strategy efficiently simplifies the fabrication of polymeric nanoparticles (combination of the polymerization and self-assembly in one pot) and allows the fabrication of polymeric nanoparticles at a relatively high concentration (up to 50 wt%), making it realistic for large-scale production of polymeric nanoparticles. In this review, the developments of PISA-based polymeric nanoparticles for drug delivery are discussed.

Efficient Synthesis of Polymer Prodrug by Thiol-Acrylate Michael Addition Reaction and Fabrication of pH-Responsive Prodrug Nanoparticles.

In this study, an efficient method is proposed for the synthesis of polymer prodrug with acid-liable linkage via thiol-acrylate Michael addition reaction of the camptothecin with tethering acrylate group and polymer scaffold containing multiple thiol groups. The polymer scaffold P(HEO2MA)- b-P(HEMA-DHLA) is prepared by reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization of the methacrylate of lipoic acid (HEMA-LA) using poly(2-(2-hydroethoxy) ethyl methacrylate) (PHEO2MA) as macro-RAFT agent followed by reduction of the disulfides in lipoic acid (LA) groups to give polymer scaffold with dihydrolipoic acid (DHLA) pendent groups. Acrylate-tethering camptothecin (ACPT) is connected to P(HEO2MA)- b-P(HEMA-DHLA) via Michael addition reaction between thiol and acrylate with a high coupling efficiency (95%). Amphiphilic polymer prodrug P(HEO2MA)- b-P(HEMA-DHLA-CPT) spontaneously self-assembles into nanoparticles in an aqueous solution and exhibits a CPT loading content as high as 40.1%. The prodrug nanoparticles with the acid-liable ß-thiopropionate linkages can release CPT under acidic conditions, and the prodrug nanoparticles show similar cytotoxicity to HeLa cells as free CPT. Overall, the prodrug nanoparticles with high drug loading contents and acid-liable linkages are promising for pH-responsive anticancer therapy.