Stimulus-responsive assembly of nonviral nucleocapsids.

Controlled assembly of a protein shell around a viral genome is a key step in the life cycle of many viruses. Here we report a strategy for regulating the co-assembly of nonviral proteins and nucleic acids into highly ordered nucleocapsids in vitro. By fusing maltose binding protein to the subunits of NC-4, an engineered protein cage that encapsulates its own encoding mRNA, we successfully blocked spontaneous capsid assembly, allowing isolation of the individual monomers in soluble form. To initiate RNA-templated nucleocapsid formation, the steric block can be simply removed by selective proteolysis. Analyses by transmission and cryo-electron microscopy confirmed that the resulting assemblies are structurally identical to their RNA-containing counterparts produced in vivo. Enzymatically triggered cage formation broadens the range of RNA molecules that can be encapsulated by NC-4, provides unique opportunities to study the co-assembly of capsid and cargo, and could be useful for studying other nonviral and viral assemblies.

Designed modular protein hydrogels for biofabrication.

Designing proteins that fold and assemble over different length scales provides a way to tailor the mechanical properties and biological performance of hydrogels. In this study, we designed modular proteins that self-assemble into fibrillar networks and, as a result, form hydrogel materials with novel properties. We incorporated distinct functionalities by connecting separate self-assembling (A block) and cell-binding (B block) domains into single macromolecules. The number of self-assembling domains affects the rigidity of the fibers and the final storage modulus G' of the materials. The mechanical properties of the hydrogels could be tuned over a broad range (G' = 0.1 - 10 kPa), making them suitable for the cultivation and differentiation of multiple cell types, including cortical neurons and human mesenchymal stem cells. Moreover, we confirmed the bioavailability of cell attachment domains in the hydrogels that can be further tailored for specific cell types or other biological applications. Finally, we demonstrate the versatility of the designed proteins for application in biofabrication as 3D scaffolds that support cell growth and guide their function. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Designed proteins that enable the decoupling of biophysical and biochemical properties within the final material could enable modular biomaterial engineering. In this context, we present a designed modular protein platform that integrates self-assembling domains (A blocks) and cell-binding domains (B blocks) within a single biopolymer. The linking of assembly domains and cell-binding domains this way provided independent tuning of mechanical properties and inclusion of biofunctional domains. We demonstrate the use of this platform for biofabrication, including neural cell culture and 3D printing of scaffolds for mesenchymal stem cell culture and differentiation. Overall, this work highlights how informed design of biopolymer sequences can enable the modular design of protein-based hydrogels with independently tunable biophysical and biochemical properties.

Hydrophobicity Tuning of Cationic Polyaspartamide Derivatives for Enhanced Antisense Oligonucleotide Delivery.

Various cationic polymers are used to deliver polyplex-mediated antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs). However, few studies have investigated the structural determinants of polyplex functionalities in polymers. This study focused on the polymer hydrophobicity. A series of amphiphilic polyaspartamide derivatives possessing various hydrophobic (R) moieties together with cationic diethylenetriamine (DET) moieties in the side chain (PAsp(DET/R)s) were synthesized to optimize the R moieties (or hydrophobicity) for locked nucleic acid (LNA) gapmer ASO delivery. The gene knockdown efficiencies of PAsp(DET/R) polyplexes were plotted against a hydrophobicity parameter, logD7.3, of PAsp(DET/R), revealing that the gene knockdown efficiency was substantially improved by PAsp(DET/R) with logD7.3 higher than -2.4. This was explained by the increased polyplex stability and improved cellular uptake of ASO payloads. After intratracheal administration, the polyplex samples with a higher logD7.3 than -2.4 induced a significantly higher gene knockdown in the lung tissue compared with counterparts with lower hydrophobicity and naked ASO. These results demonstrate that the hydrophobicity of PAsp(DET/R) is crucial for efficient ASO delivery in vitro and in vivo.

Protein Cages: From Fundamentals to Advanced Applications.

Proteins that self-assemble into polyhedral shell-like structures are useful molecular containers both in nature and in the laboratory. Here we review efforts to repurpose diverse protein cages, including viral capsids, ferritins, bacterial microcompartments, and designed capsules, as vaccines, drug delivery vehicles, targeted imaging agents, nanoreactors, templates for controlled materials synthesis, building blocks for higher-order architectures, and more. A deep understanding of the principles underlying the construction, function, and evolution of natural systems has been key to tailoring selective cargo encapsulation and interactions with both biological systems and synthetic materials through protein engineering and directed evolution. The ability to adapt and design increasingly sophisticated capsid structures and functions stands to benefit the fields of catalysis, materials science, and medicine.

Noncovalent Stabilization of Vesicular Polyion Complexes with Chemically Modified/Single-Stranded Oligonucleotides and PEG-b-guanidinylated Polypeptides for Intracavity Encapsulation of Effector Enzymes Aimed at Cooperative Gene Knockdown.

For the simultaneous delivery of antisense oligonucleotides and their effector enzymes into cells, nanosized vesicular polyion complexes (PICs) were fabricated from oppositely charged polyion pairs of oligonucleotides and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-b-polypeptides. First, the polyion component structures were carefully designed to facilitate a multimolecular (or secondary) association of unit PICs for noncovalent (or chemical cross-linking-free) stabilization of vesicular PICs. Chemically modified, single-stranded oligonucleotides (SSOs) dramatically stabilized the multimolecular associates under physiological conditions, compared to control SSOs without chemical modifications and duplex oligonucleotides. In addition, a high degree of guanidino groups in the polypeptide segment was also crucial for the high stability of multimolecular associates. Dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy revealed the stabilized multimolecular associates to have a 100 nm sized vesicular architecture with a narrow size distribution. The loading number of SSOs per nanovesicle was determined to be ∼2500 using fluorescence correlation spectroscopic analyses with fluorescently labeled SSOs. Furthermore, the nanovesicle stably encapsulated ribonuclease H (RNase H) as an effector enzyme at ∼10 per nanovesicle through simple vortex-mixing with preformed nanovesicles. Ultimately, the RNase H-encapsulated nanovesicle efficiently delivered SSOs with RNase H into cultured cancer cells, thereby eliciting the significantly higher gene knockdown compared with empty nanovesicles (without RNase H) or a mixture of nanovesicles with RNase H without encapsulation. These results demonstrate the great potential of noncovalently stabilized nanovesicles for the codelivery of two varying bio-macromolecule payloads for ensuring their cooperative biological activity.

Robust Polyion Complex Vesicles (PICsomes) under Physiological Conditions Reinforced by Multiple Hydrogen Bond Formation Derived by Guanidinium Groups.

Polyion complex vesicles (PICsomes) formed from a self-assembly of an oppositely charged pair of block- and homo-polyelectrolytes have shown exceptional features for functional loading of bioactive agents. Nevertheless, the stability of PICsomes is often jeopardized in a physiological environment, and only PICsomes having chemically cross-linked membranes have endured in harsh in vivo conditions, such as in the bloodstream. Herein, we developed versatile PICsomes aimed to last in in vivo settings by stabilizing their membrane through a combination of ionic and hydrogen bonding, which is widely found in natural proteins as a salt bridge, by controlled introduction of guanidinium groups in the polycation fraction toward concurrent polyion complexation and hydrogen bonding. The guanidinylated PICsomes were successfully assembled under physiological salt conditions, with precise control of their morphology by tuning the guanidinium content, and the ratio of anionic and cationic components. Guanidinylated PICsomes with 100 nm diameter, which are relevant to nanocarrier development, were stable in high urea concentration, at physiological temperature, and under serum incubation, persisting in blood circulation in vivo.

Multilayered polyion complexes with dissolvable silica layer covered by controlling densities of cRGD-conjugated PEG chains for cancer-targeted siRNA delivery.

Surface functionalization of nanoparticles is a crucial factor for nanoparticle-mediated drug and nucleic acid delivery. Particularly, the density of targeting ligands on nanoparticle significantly affects the affinity of nanoparticles to specific cellular surface (or receptor) through the multivalent binding effect. Herein, multilayered polyion complexes (mPICs) are prepared to possess varying densities of cyclic RGD peptide (cRGD) ligands for cancer-targeted small interfering RNA (siRNA) delivery. A template PIC is first prepared by mixing siRNAs with homo catiomers of N-substituted polyaspartamide bearing tetraethylenepentamine (PAsp(TEP)) in aqueous solution, followed by silica-coating through silicate condensation reaction. Then, silica-coated PICs (sPICs) are further covered with block catiomers of PAsp(TEP) and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) equipped with cRGD ligand. Successful preparation of targeted mPICs is confirmed from the changes in size and ζ-potential and the elemental analysis by transmission electron microscopy. Notably, the number of cRGD ligands per mPIC is regulated by altering the silicate concentration upon preparation of sPICs, which is confirmed by fluorescence correlation spectroscopy using fluorescent-labeled block catiomers. Ultimately, the targeted mPICs with a higher number of cRGD ligands demonstrate more efficient cellular uptake in cultured cancer cells, leading to enhanced gene silencing activity.

Enhanced target recognition of nanoparticles by cocktail PEGylation with chains of varying lengths.

Monodispersed gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) were simultaneously decorated with lactosylated and non-modified shorter poly(ethylene glycol)s (PEGs) to enhance their target recognition. The decoration with sufficiently shorter PEGs dramatically enhanced the multivalent binding ability of lactosylated AuNPs to the lectin-fixed surface, possibly due to the enhanced mobility of the ligands via the spacer effect generated by the shorter PEG chains.

Fabrication of polyion complex vesicles with enhanced salt and temperature resistance and their potential applications as enzymatic nanoreactors.

Integrating catalytic functions into polymeric vesicles through enzyme entrapment is appealing for bioreactor fabrication, yet there are critical issues regarding the regulation of solute transport through membranes and enzyme loading without denaturation. Polyion complex vesicles (PICsomes) with semipermeable membranes and the propensity to form in water can overcome these issues; however, cross-linking is required for sufficient physiological stability. Herein, we report the first successful fabrication of non-cross-linked PICsomes with sufficient stability at physiological salinity and temperature by tuning the hydrophobicity of the aliphatic side chains in the pendant group of the constituent polyelectrolytes. Dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy revealed that the intervesicular fusion and disintegration of the PICsomes was prevented and a narrow distribution was maintained at physiological salinity and temperatures. Furthermore, their application as enzymatic nanoreactors was verified even in the presence of proteases. As such, the potential utility of the PICsomes in biomedical fields was established.