Restoring cellular copper homeostasis in Alzheimer disease: a novel peptide shuttle is internalized by an ATP-dependent endocytosis pathway involving Rab5- and Rab14-endosomes.

CPPs, or Cell-Penetrating Peptides, offer invaluable utility in disease treatment due to their ability to transport various therapeutic molecules across cellular membranes. Their unique characteristics, such as biocompatibility and low immunogenicity, make them ideal candidates for delivering drugs, genes, or imaging agents directly into cells. This targeted delivery enhances treatment efficacy while minimizing systemic side effects. CPPs exhibit versatility, crossing biological barriers and reaching intracellular targets that conventional drugs struggle to access. This capability holds promise in treating a wide array of diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and infectious diseases, offering a potent avenue for innovative and targeted therapies, yet their precise mechanism of cell entry is far from being fully understood. In order to correct Cu dysregulation found in various pathologies such as Alzheimer disease, we have recently conceived a peptide Cu(II) shuttle, based on the αR5W4 CPP, which, when bound to Cu(II), is able to readily enter a neurosecretory cell model, and release bioavailable Cu in cells. Furthermore, this shuttle has the capacity to protect cells in culture against oxidative stress-induced damage which occurs when Cu binds to the Aß peptide. The aim of this study was therefore to characterize the cell entry route used by this shuttle and determine in which compartment Cu is released. Pharmacological treatments, siRNA silencing and colocalization experiments with GFP-Rab fusion proteins, indicate that the shuttle is internalized by an ATP-dependent endocytosis pathway involving both Rab5 and Rab14 endosomes route and suggest an early release of Cu from the shuttle.

Rationally Designed Cu(I) Ligand to Prevent CuAß-Generated ROS Production in the Alzheimer's Disease Context.

In the context of Alzheimer's disease, copper (Cu) can be loosely bound to the amyloid-ß (Aß) peptide, leading to the formation of CuAß, which can catalytically generate reactive oxygen species that contribute to oxidative stress. To fight against this phenomenon, the chelation therapy approach has been developed and consists of using a ligand able to remove Cu from Aß and to redox-silence it, thus stopping the reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. A large number of Cu(II) chelators has been studied, allowing us to define and refine the properties required to design a "good" ligand, but without strong therapeutic outcomes to date. Those chelators targeted the Cu(II) redox state. Herein, we explore a parallel and relevant alternative pathway by designing a chelator able to target the Cu(I) redox state. To that end, we designed LH2 ([1N3S] binding set) and demonstrated that (i) it is perfectly able to extract Cu(I) from Cu(I)Aß even in the presence of an excess of Zn(II) and (ii) it redox-silences the Cu, preventing the formation of ROS. We showed that LH2 that is sensitive to oxidation can efficiently replace the [Zn(II)L] complex without losing its excellent ability to stop the ROS production while increasing its resistance to oxidation.

Redox processes in Cu-binding proteins: the "in-between" states in intrinsically disordered peptides.

We report on a concept that some of us first described a decade ago for pure electron transfer [V. Balland, C. Hureau and J.-M. Savéant, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 2010, 107, 17113]. In the present viewpoint, based on more recent results, we refine and extend this "in-between state" concept to explain the formation of reactive oxygen species by copper ions bound to the amyloid-ß (Aß) peptide involved in Alzheimer's disease. In such intrinsically disordered peptides, the Cu coordination is versatile due to the lack of stable folding and the presence of multiple possible binding anchors. Hence, the Cu(I) and Cu(II) ions do impose their favoured sites, with Cu(I) bound in a linear fashion between two His residues and Cu(II) in a square-based pyramid bound to Asp1 amine and carbonyl groups and two His residues in the equatorial plane. Hence a direct electron transfer is prevented and alternatively an in-between state (IBS) mechanism applies, whose description and analysis with respect to other electron transfer processes is the topic of the present viewpoint.

Oxidative Damages on the Alzheimer's Related-Aß Peptide Alters Its Ability to Assemble.

Oxidative stress that can lead to oxidation of the amyloid-ß (Aß) peptide is considered a key feature in Alzheimer's disease (AD), influencing the ability of Aß to assemble into ß-sheet rich fibrils that are commonly found in senile plaques of AD patients. The present study aims at investigating the fallouts of Aß oxidation on the assembly properties of the Aß peptide. To accomplish this, we performed kinetics and analysis on an oxidized Aß (oxAß) peptide, resulting from the attack of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that are formed by the biologically relevant Cu/Aß/dioxygen/ascorbate system. oxAß was still able to assemble but displayed ill-defined and small oligomeric assemblies compared to the long and thick ß-sheet rich fibrils from the non-oxidized counterpart. In addition, oxAß does affect the assembly of the parent Aß peptide. In a mixture of the two peptides, oxAß has a mainly kinetic effect on the assembly of the Aß peptide and was able to slow down the formation of Aß fibril in a wide pH range [6.0-7.4]. However, oxAß does not change the quantity and morphology of the Aß fibrils formed to a significant extent. In the presence of copper or zinc di-cations, oxAß assembled into weakly-structured aggregates rather than short, untangled Cu-Aß fibrils and long untangled Zn-Aß fibrils. The delaying effect of oxAß on metal altered Aß assembly was also observed. Hence, our results obtained here bring new insights regarding the tight interconnection between (i) ROS production leading to Aß oxidation and (ii) Aß assembly, in particular via the modulation of the Aß assembly by oxAß. It is the first time that co-assembly of oxAß and Aß under various environmental conditions (pH, metal ions …) are reported.

Ability of Azathiacyclen Ligands To Stop Cu(Aß)-Induced Production of Reactive Oxygen Species: [3N1S] Is the Right Donor Set.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an incurable neurodegenerative disease that leads to the progressive and irreversible loss of mental functions. The amyloid beta (Aß) peptide involved in the disease is responsible for the production of damaging reactive oxygen species (ROS) when bound to Cu ions. A therapeutic approach that consists of removing Cu ions from Aß to alter this deleterious interaction is currently being developed. In this context, we report the ability of five different 12-membered thiaazacyclen ligands to capture Cu from Aß and to redox silence it. We propose that the presence of a sole sulfur atom in the ligand increases the rate of Cu capture and removal from Aß, while the kinetic aspect of the chelation was an issue encountered with the 4N parent ligand. The best ligand for removing Cu from Aß and inhibiting the associated ROS production is the 1-thia-4,7,10-triazacyclododecane [3N1S]. Indeed the replacement of more N by S atoms makes the corresponding Cu complexes easier to reduce and thus able to produce ROS on their own. In addition, the ligand with three sulfur atoms has a weaker affinity for CuII than Aß, and is thus unable to remove Cu from CuAß.

Sequence-Activity Relationship of ATCUN Peptides in the Context of Alzheimer's Disease.

Amino-terminal CuII and NiII (ATCUN) binding sequences are widespread in the biological world. Here, we report on the study of eight ATCUN peptides aimed at targeting copper ions and stopping the associated formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). This study was actually more focused on Cu(Aß)-induced ROS production in which the Aß peptide is the "villain" linked to Alzheimer's disease. The full characterization of CuII binding to the ATCUN peptides, the CuII extraction from CuII(Aß), and the ability of the peptides to prevent and/or stop ROS formation are described in the relevant biological conditions. We highlighted in this research that all the ATCUN motifs studied formed the same thermodynamic complex but that the addition of a second histidine in position 1 or 2 allowed for an improvement in the CuII uptake kinetics. This kinetic rate was directly related to the ability of the peptide to stop the CuII(Aß)-induced production of ROS, with the most efficient motifs being HWHG and HGHW.

Development of Cu(ii)-specific peptide shuttles capable of preventing Cu-amyloid beta toxicity and importing bioavailable Cu into cells.

Copper (Cu) in its ionic forms is an essential element for mammals and its homeostasis is tightly controlled. Accordingly, Cu-dyshomeostasis can be lethal as is the case in the well-established genetic Wilson's and Menkes diseases. In Alzheimer's disease (AD), Cu-accumulation occurs in amyloid plaques, where it is bound to the amyloid-beta peptide (Aß). In vitro, Cu-Aß is competent to catalyze the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the presence of ascorbate under aerobic conditions, and hence Cu-Aß is believed to contribute to the oxidative stress in AD. Several molecules that can recover extracellular Cu from Aß and transport it back into cells with beneficial effects in cell culture and transgenic AD models were identified. However, all the Cu-shuttles currently available are not satisfactory due to various potential limitations including ion selectivity and toxicity. Hence, we designed a novel peptide-based Cu shuttle with the following properties: (i) it contains a Cu(ii)-binding motif that is very selective to Cu(ii) over all other essential metal ions; (ii) it is tagged with a fluorophore sensitive to Cu(ii)-binding and release; (iii) it is made of a peptide platform, which is very versatile to add new functions. The work presented here reports on the characterization of AKH-αR5W4NBD, which is able to transport Cu ions selectively into PC12 cells and the imported Cu appeared bioavailable, likely via reductive release induced by glutathione. Moreover, AKH-αR5W4NBD was able to withdraw Cu from the Aß1-16 peptide and consequently inhibited the Cu-Aß based reactive oxygen species production and related cell toxicity. Hence, AKH-αR5W4NBD could be a valuable new tool for Cu-transport into cells and suitable for mechanistic studies in cell culture, with potential applications in restoring Cu-homeostasis in Cu-related diseases such as AD.

Why the Ala-His-His Peptide Is an Appropriate Scaffold to Remove and Redox Silence Copper Ions from the Alzheimer's-Related Aß Peptide.

The progressive, neurodegenerative Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most widespread dementia. Due to the ageing of the population and the current lack of molecules able to prevent or stop the disease, AD will be even more impactful for society in the future. AD is a multifactorial disease, and, among other factors, metal ions have been regarded as potential therapeutic targets. This is the case for the redox-competent Cu ions involved in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) when bound to the Alzheimer-related Aß peptide, a process that contributes to the overall oxidative stress and inflammation observed in AD. Here, we made use of peptide ligands to stop the Cu(Aß)-induced ROS production and we showed why the AHH sequence is fully appropriate, while the two parents, AH and AAH, are not. The AHH peptide keeps its beneficial ability against Cu(Aß)-induced ROS, even in the presence of ZnII-competing ions and other biologically relevant ions. The detailed kinetic mechanism by which AHH could exert its action against Cu(Aß)-induced ROS is also proposed.

Synthesis, characterization and superoxide dismutase activity of a biomimetic Mn(III) complex covalently anchored to mesoporous silica.

A mononuclear Mn(III) complex of a clickable ligand, [Mn(hbpapn)(H2O)2]ClO4·4.5H2O, where H2hbpapn = 1,3-bis[(2-hydroxybenzyl)(propargyl)amino]propane, has been prepared and fully characterized. The complex catalyzes the dismutation of superoxide employing a Mn(III)/Mn(IV) redox cycle, with catalytic rate constant of 3.9 × 106 M-1 s-1 determined through the nitro blue tetrazolium photoreduction inhibition assay, in aqueous medium of pH 7.8. The alkyne function of the ligand was used for the covalent attachment of the catalyst to azide modified mesoporous silicas with different texture and morphology, through click chemistry. In these materials the catalyst is essentially linked to the inner pore walls, isolated and protected from the external medium. The hybrid materials can be recycled, and retain or improve the superoxide dismutase activity of the free catalyst with the pore size of the solid matrix playing a role on the activity of the catalyst.

Synthesis, Structure, and Biologic Activity of Some Copper, Nickel, Cobalt, and Zinc Complexes with 2-Formylpyridine N 4-Allylthiosemicarbazone.

A series of zinc(II) ([Zn(H2O)(L)Cl] (1)), copper (II) ([Cu(L)Cl] (2), [Cu(L)Br] (3), [Cu2(L)2(CH3COO)2]·4H2O (4)), nickel(II) ([Ni(HL)2]Cl2·H2O (5)), and cobalt(III) ([Co(L)2]Cl (6)) complexes were obtained with 2-formylpyridine N 4-allylthiosemicarbazone (HL). In addition another two thiosemicarbazones (3-formylpyridine N 4-allylthiosemicarbazone (HL a) and 4-formylpyridine N 4-allylthiosemicarbazone (HL b)) have been obtained. The synthesized thiosemicarbazones have been studied using 1H and 13C NMR spectroscopy, IR spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction analysis. The composition and structure of complexes were studied using elemental analysis, IR and UV-Vis spectroscopies, molar conductivity, and magnetic susceptibility measurements. Single crystal X-ray diffraction analysis elucidated the structure of thiosemicarbazones HL, HL a, and HL b, as well as complexes 4 and 5. The antiproliferative properties of these compounds toward a series of cancer cell lines (HL-60, HeLa, BxPC-3, RD) and a normal cell line (MDCK) have been investigated. The nickel complex shows high selectivity (SI > 1000) toward HL-60 cell line and is the least toxic. The zinc complex shows the highest selectivity toward RD cell line (SI = 640). The copper complexes (2-4) are the most active molecular inhibitors of proliferation of cancer cells, but exhibit not such a high selectivity and are significantly more toxic. Zinc and copper complexes manifest high antibacterial activity. It was found that calculated at B3LYP level of theory different reactivity descriptors of studied compounds strongly correlate with their biological activity.

Keggin-type polyoxometalates as Cu(II) chelators in the context of Alzheimer's disease.

Two Keggin polyoxometalates were used as new copper ligands to counteract the effects of CuII(Amyloid-ß) interaction. Their ability to remove CuII from CuII(Amyloid-ß), to stop CuII(Amyloid-ß) induced formation of reactive oxygen species and to restore apo-like self-assembly of CuII(Amyloid-ß) was shown.

Hybrid Bis-Histidine Phenanthroline-Based Ligands to Lessen Aß-Bound Cu ROS Production: An Illustration of Cu(I) Significance.

We here report the synthesis of three new hybrid ligands built around the phenanthroline scaffold and encompassing two histidine-like moieties: phenHH, phenHGH and H'phenH', where H correspond to histidine and H' to histamine. These ligands were designed to capture Cu(I/II) from the amyloid-ß peptide and to prevent the formation of reactive oxygen species produced by amyloid-ß bound copper in presence of physiological reductant (e.g., ascorbate) and dioxygen. The amyloid-ß peptide is a well-known key player in Alzheimer's disease, a debilitating and devasting neurological disorder the mankind has to fight against. The Cu-Aß complex does participate in the oxidative stress observed in the disease, due to the redox ability of the Cu(I/II) ions. The complete characterization of the copper complexes made with phenHH, phenHGH and H'phenH' is reported, along with the ability of ligands to remove Cu from Aß, and to prevent the formation of reactive oxygen species catalyzed by Cu and Cu-Aß, including in presence of zinc, the second metal ions important in the etiology of Alzheimer's disease. The importance of the reduced state of copper, Cu(I), in the prevention and arrest of ROS is mechanistically described with the help of cyclic voltammetry experiments.

Solid-state and solution characterizations of [(TMPA)Cu(II)(SO3)] and [(TMPA)Cu(II)(S2O3)] complexes: Application to sulfite and thiosulfate fast detection.

Sulfite (SO32-) and thiosulfate (S2O32-) ions are used as food preservative and antichlor agent respectively. To detect low levels of such anions we used Cu(II) complex of the Tris-Methyl Pyridine Amine (TMPA) ligand, denoted L. Formation of [LCu(SO3)] (1) and [LCu(S2O3)] (2) in solution were monitored using UV-Vis, EPR and cyclic voltammetry, while the solid-state X-ray structures of both complexes were solved. In addition, we also evaluated the pH range in which the complexes are stable, and the anions binding affinity values for the [LCu(solvent)]2+ (3) parent complex. As a matter of illustration, we determined the sulfite content in a commercial crystal sugar.

A Water-Soluble Peptoid Chelator that Can Remove Cu2+ from Amyloid-ß Peptides and Stop the Formation of Reactive Oxygen Species Associated with Alzheimer's Disease.

Cu bound to amyloid-ß (Aß) peptides can act as a catalyst for the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to neuropathologic degradation associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD). An excellent therapeutic approach is to use a chelator that can selectively remove Cu from Cu-Aß. This chelator should compete with Zn2+ ions (Zn) that are present in the synaptic cleft while forming a nontoxic Cu complex. Herein we describe P3, a water-soluble peptidomimetic chelator that selectively removes Cu2+ from Cu-Aß in the presence of Zn and prevent the formation of ROS even in a reductive environment. We demonstrate, based on extensive spectroscopic analysis, that although P3 extracts Zn from Cu,Zn-Aß faster than it removes Cu, the formed Zn complexes are kinetic products that further dissociate, while CuP3 is formed as an exclusive stable thermodynamic product. Our unique findings, combined with the bioavailability of peptoids, make P3 an excellent drug candidate in the context of AD.

Copper Imbalance in Alzheimer's Disease and Its Link with the Amyloid Hypothesis: Towards a Combined Clinical, Chemical, and Genetic Etiology.

The cause of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is incompletely defined. To date, no mono-causal treatment has so far reached its primary clinical endpoints, probably due to the complexity and diverse neuropathology contributing to the neurodegenerative process. In the present paper, we describe the plausible etiological role of copper (Cu) imbalance in the disease. Cu imbalance is strongly associated with neurodegeneration in dementia, but a complete biochemical etiology consistent with the clinical, chemical, and genetic data is required to support a causative association, rather than just correlation with disease. We hypothesize that a Cu imbalance in the aging human brain evolves as a gradual shift from bound metal ion pools, associated with both loss of energy production and antioxidant function, to pools of loosely bound metal ions, involved in gain-of-function oxidative stress, a shift that may be aggravated by chemical aging. We explain how this may cause mitochondrial deficits, energy depletion of high-energy demanding neurons, and aggravated protein misfolding/oligomerization to produce different clinical consequences shaped by the severity of risk factors, additional comorbidities, and combinations with other types of pathology. Cu imbalance should be viewed and integrated with concomitant genetic risk factors, aging, metabolic abnormalities, energetic deficits, neuroinflammation, and the relation to tau, prion proteins, α-synuclein, TAR DNA binding protein-43 (TDP-43) as well as systemic comorbidity. Specifically, the Amyloid Hypothesis is strongly intertwined with Cu imbalance because amyloid-ß protein precursor (AßPP)/Aß are probable Cu/Zn binding proteins with a potential role as natural Cu/Zn buffering proteins (loss of function), and via the plausible pathogenic role of Cu-Aß.

Measurement of Interpeptidic CuII Exchange Rate Constants of CuII-Amyloid-ß Complexes to Small Peptide Motifs by Tryptophan Fluorescence Quenching.

The interpeptidic CuII exchange rate constants were measured for two Cu amyloid-ß complexes, Cu(Aß1-16) and Cu(Aß1-28), to fluorescent peptides GHW and DAHW using a quantitative tryptophan fluorescence quenching methodology. The second-order rate constants were determined at three pH values (6.8, 7.4, and 8.7) important to the two Cu(Aß) coordination complexes, components Cu(Aß)I and Cu(Aß)II. The interpeptidic CuII exchange rate constant is approximately 104 M-1 s-1 but varies in magnitude depending on many variables. These include pH, length of the Aß peptide, location of the anchoring histidine ligand in the fluorescent peptide, number of amide deprotonations required in the tryptophan peptide to coordinate CuII, and interconversion between Cu(Aß)I and Cu(Aß)II. We also present EPR data probing the CuII exchange between peptides and the formation of ternary species between Cu(Aß) and GHW. As the nonfluorescent GHK and DAHK peptides are important motifs found in the blood and serum, their ability to sequester CuII ions from Cu(Aß) complexes may be relevant for the metal homeostasis and its implication in Alzheimer's disease. Thus, their kinetic CuII interpeptidic exchange rate constants are important chemical rate constants that can help elucidate the complex CuII trafficking puzzle in the synaptic cleft.

Unexpected Trends in Copper Removal from Aß Peptide: When Less Ligand Is Better and Zn Helps.

Cu, Zn, and amyloid-ß (Aß) peptides play an important role in the etiology of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Their interaction indeed modifies the self-assembly propensity of the peptide that is at the origin of the deposition of insoluble peptide aggregates in the amyloid plaque, a hallmark found in AD brains. Another even more important fallout of the Cu binding to Aß peptide is the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that contributes to the overall oxidative stress detected in the disease and is due to the redox ability of the Cu ions. Many therapeutic approaches are currently developed to aid fighting against AD, one of them targeting the redox-active Cu ions. Along this research line, we report in the present article the use of a phenanthroline-based peptide-like ligand (L), which is able to withdraw Cu from Aß and redox-silence it in a very stable 4N Cu(II) binding site even in the presence of Zn(II). In addition and in contrast to what is usually observed, the presence of excess of L lessens the searched effect of ROS production prevention, but it is counterbalanced by the co-presence of Zn(II). To explain such unprecedented trends, we proposed a mechanism that involves the redox reaction between Cu(II)L and Cu(I)L2. We thus illustrated (i) how speciation and redox chemistry can weaken the effect of a ligand that would have appeared perfectly suitable if only tested in a 1:1 ratio and on CuAß and (ii) how Zn overcomes the undesired lessening of ROS arrest due to excess of ligand. In brief, we have shown how working in biologically relevant conditions is important for the understanding of all of the reactions at play and this must be taken into consideration for the further rational design of ligands aiming to become drug candidates.

Concentration-Dependent Interactions of Amphiphilic PiB Derivative Metal Complexes with Amyloid Peptides Aß and Amylin*.

Metal chelates targeted to amyloid peptides are widely explored as diagnostic tools or therapeutic agents. The attachment of a metal complex to amyloid recognition units typically leads to a decrease in peptide affinity. We show here that by separating a macrocyclic GdL chelate and a PiB targeting unit with a long hydrophobic C10 linker, it is possible to attain nanomolar affinities for both Aß1-40 (Kd =4.4 nm) and amylin (Kd =4.5 nm), implicated, respectively in Alzheimer's disease and diabetes. The Scatchard analysis of surface plasmon resonance data obtained for a series of amphiphilic, PiB derivative GdL complexes indicate that their Aß1-40 or amylin binding affinity varies with their concentration, thus micellar aggregation state. The GdL chelates also affect peptide aggregation kinetics, as probed by thioflavin-T fluorescence assays. A 2D NMR study allowed identifying that the hydrophilic region of Aß1-40 is involved in the interaction between the monomer peptide and the Gd3+ complex. Finally, ex vivo biodistribution experiments were conducted in healthy mice by using 111 In labeled analogues. Their pancreatic uptake, ∼3 %ID g-1 , is promising to envisage amylin imaging in diabetic animals.

Impact of N-Truncated Aß Peptides on Cu- and Cu(Aß)-Generated ROS: CuI Matters!

In vitro Cu(Aß1-x )-induced ROS production has been extensively studied. Conversely, the ability of N-truncated isoforms of Aß to alter the Cu-induced ROS production has been overlooked, even though they are main constituents of amyloid plaques found in the human brain. N-Truncated peptides at the positions 4 and 11 (Aß4-x and Aß11-x ) contain an amino-terminal copper and nickel (ATCUN) binding motif (H2 N-Xxx-Zzz-His) that confer them different coordination sites and higher affinities for CuII compared to the Aß1-x peptide. It has further been proposed that the role of Aß4-x peptide is to quench CuII toxicity in the brain. However, the role of CuI coordination has not been investigated to date. In contrast to CuII , CuI coordination is expected to be the same for N-truncated and N-intact peptides. Herein, we report in-depth characterizations and ROS production studies of Cu (CuI and CuII ) complexes of the Aß4-16 and Aß11-16 N-truncated peptides. Our findings show that the N-truncated peptides do produce ROS when CuI is present in the medium, albeit to a lesser extent than the unmodified counterpart. In addition, when used as competitor ligands (i.e., in the presence of Aß1-16 ), the N-truncated peptides are not able to fully preclude Cu(Aß1-16 )-induced ROS production.